The Life And Reign Of The Mighty King Aethelstan

 

King Aethelstan ruled between 924 and 939 and he would become arguably the most important ruler in the entire history of the English monarchy. Family pedigree certainly favoured Aethelstan. His father Edward The Elder was a fine king in his own right, his grandfather was Alfred The Great and his aunt was Aethelflaed, Lady of the Mercians, who all made significant contributions towards the unification of the country that we now call England. It could be said that Aethelstan surpassed the accomplishments of all three of these magnificent rulers. And it is Aethelstan who is widely regarded as the first true king of England.

On the death of his father Edward in 924, Aethelstan was declared king. Aethelstan was a mature man when he succeeded, aged around 30. Growing up, Aethelstan had spent time with his grandfather, Alfred, who was fond of his grandson. On one occasion, Alfred gave the boy a spectacular cloak, belt and sword as a gift. It was clear that Alfred recognised in his grandson a boy who would one day perhaps become king and, if he did (which there was no guarantee of in these hard and dangerous times where mortality was high) then he would rule mightily. Alfred then encouraged the boy to be educated at the court of Aethelflaed who, alongside her husband Aethelred, kept a watchful eye over Aethelstan's progress. Alfred was perhaps keen to encourage his grandson's learning as he knew Aethelstan's father, Edward, was not as keen on education as Alfred had been and perhaps might neglect this aspect of Aethelstan's childhood.

When Aethelstan had come to the throne in 924, there were some question marks over his right to rule as he had a half brother who technically ranked above him in the line of succession. However, this half brother died a little over a fortnight after Edward The Elder had done. There remained objections to Aethelstan's potential kingship but he was eventually crowned in 925. He quickly set to work. He made a marriage treaty with the Viking ruler of York who agreed to marry Aethelstan's sister. Very conveniently, Aethelstan's new brother in law died the following year and he took York under his control. He marched further Northwards and seized Northumbria. However, the Northumbrians resented Southern control and would resist for several more decades. Aethelstan then threatened the King of Scots, Constantine II, with war if he did not accept Aethelstan's overlordship. Constantine, for the time being at least, agreed but he would be problematic in the years to come

With his campaigns in the North proving to be successful, Aethelstan then wanted to ensure the continuing loyalty of his subjects. In York, he razed to the ground a castle that had been built there by the Vikings so that it would not become a potential rallying point for any potential rebellions. The king was also careful to ensure that he rewarded his followers who joined him on his campaigns by generously handing over to them money, treasures and other spoils of war that had been captured on his campaigns. Aethelstan was also a deeply pious man and, having adequately rewarded his supporters, he then made generous donations to monasteries and other religious buildings. Whilst Aethelstan's motives for his generosity can be attributed to his piety, he also knew that this would help his public image. He rewarded loyalty and was generous to the church. People who continued to doubt or even resent his rule would not be able to accuse Aethelstan of a greedy or tyrannical rule in the manner of later kings. Aethelstan was winning the propaganda war against his enemies and showing himself to be not only an excellent military leader but also a canny and pragmatic king as well.

Aethelstan also showed himself to be a man of the people as well. He was kind and approachable to his subjects, whatever walk of life they came from, whether this be the nobility, the clergy or the poor. Physically, he was thin with flaxen hair. Accompanied with his mild mannered personality, people might have been forgiven for thinking, on first meeting with the king, that he was almost a bit of pushover. However, this was certainly not the case as his enemies would find out.

Aethelstan then subdued the rebellious Northern Welsh who, after a meeting at Hereford, paid homage to the king. Aethelstan remained in the South West where he spend much time building towers and castles in the event of further trouble in the region. His reputation as a formidable and proactive king was not just growing in the British Isles but further afield as well. The Norwegian king Harald Fairhair sent Aethelstan a ship along with some ambassadors to establish diplomatic relations. Henry The Fowler, king of Germany and a great ruler in his own right, then asked for a marriage treaty with Aethelstan which would see Aethelstan's sister marry Henry's son Otto. The prestigious marriage did indeed take place in 930. As for Aethelstan himself, he would remain unmarried, perhaps due to his piety, and so bore no children or heirs.

The most famous event of Aethelstan's reign is unquestionably the Battle of Brunanburh, fought in 937.  The battle would prove to be a spectacular success for Aethelstan. In the years leading up to Brunanburh, the Scottish king Constantine had been causing trouble with Aethelstan being forced to lead several campaigns against him. Constantine knew that he needed an ally if he was to overcome the mighty Aethelstan in battle. Fortunately for him, he did have a potential ally. This came in the shape of the Vikings who had still not given up hope of reclaiming York. And so, the Vikings, led by the king of Dublin, and the Scots, led by Constantine, invaded England, seeking to undo much of Aethelstan's hard work in unifying England and seizing territories for themselves.

However, it would prove to be a grave mistake as Aethelstan's army routed the invaders. So bloody was the battle that it was said that no great a slaughter had ever taken place. Any question marks over Aethelstan's authority were completely destroyed. Just two years later, Aethelstan died in 939, probably in his mid 40s. Whether it can be said he was the first king of England is up for debate. As mentioned earlier, there would still be work to do regarding the subjection of Northumbria.  What is not up for debate is the spectacular success Aethelstan had been as king.

Edward The Elder: Son of Alfred The Great But Warrior King In His Own Right

 

Son of Alfred The Great and father of Aethelstan, Edward The Elder's place in history should be more prominent then it actually is. He is one of our most important kings but is, often, sadly overlooked. Born in the 870s, Edward differed in character somewhat from his father, Alfred. Whereas Alfred The Great loved learning and made a distinct effort to ensure as many people as possible could get an education of some description, Edward's interests in this regard was relatively limited. All the same, Alfred ensured Edward received excellent tutoring as he grew up. Edward's learning was done in an almost school like environment. He was joined in his lessons by his sister Aethelflaed as well as children of members of the nobility.

It wasn't long before it became clear that Alfred was, in the shape of young Edward, rearing a son who was demonstrating kingly qualities. As a teenager, Edward led campaigns against the Vikings, not without some success, including at the Battle of Farnham. Here, Edward had led the Anglo Saxon army, albeit under the strict instructions of his father, and won the battle. Edward though tried to make the victory even more emphatic and inflict further damage on the Vikings as they fled the battlefield. Edward went in hot pursuit of them and appeared to have them cornered. However, Edward's army was beginning to run into problems. It was running out of food and other basic essentials and, on top of this, the agreed military service time for many of Edward's men was coming to an end and, before Edward could join up with Alfred, much of his army left and returned to their homes. No doubt Edward had learned much from this experience and by the time of Alfred's death in 899, Edward would be fully prepared for kingship.

However, Edward's succession as king of Wessex did not go unchallenged. Edward had a cousin named Aethelwold who had been overlooked for the throne in 871 as he was only a young boy when his father Aethelred I had died. It had made logical sense to overlook Aethelwold at that time. The 870s were a dark and troubled time for the Anglo Saxon kingdoms and Wessex needed a man (which Alfred was as he was in his early twenties when Aethelred I had died)  as king to try and repel the Viking invasions. 871 was no time for a minority government. With Alfred dead, Aethelwold reignited his claims. Aethelwold gained support in Essex before marching on Mercia. This could prove to be a very tricky situation for Edward. Aethelwold, however, may well have lost sympathy for his cause by switching his allegiances to the Vikings. But his claims came to an end at the Battle of Holme. Although his Viking allies were technically triumphant at Holme over a force loyal to Edward, this did very little good for Aethelwold who was killed in the fighting, along with many others.

After this unwelcome challenge to his rule had finally drawn to a close several years after he had become king, Edward could finally concentrate on other matters. In 909, Edward launched a brutal campaign against the Vikings in the North where many of Edward's enemies were killed and great destruction was brought on the invaders' crops and cattle. The next year Edward continued his front foot momentum and triumphed at the Battle of Tettenhall and In 912, he built fortifications across Hertfordshire. Edward's sister, Aethelflaed, Lady of the Mercians, was also making significant gains for the Saxons. Aethelfaed's forces retook Derby, Leicester and other areas, cementing her as one of the most important people (not just women) in early English history.

As king, Edward provided clear and robust laws. When it came to buying property, Edward declared that such transactions should be presided over by trustworthy men in order to avoid fraudulent agreements. Anyone that did try and purchase property in an unlawful manner could expect heavy fines which only increased with every offence. If theft was committed, then forfeiture of property could be expected or, if the culprit had little or no property, then other punishments could be handed down. Edward was thorough in his law giving and he ensured other crimes such as perjury and assisting an offender were also taken seriously. During more lax reigns, issues such as these could very often be commonplace and overlooked. 

In 914, one of Edward's bishops was taken hostage. In a time where Edward needed all the finances he could muster, he might have been forgiven for turning a blind eye to this situation but, much to his credit, he did not and readily paid the ransom. He then continued to reinforce strongholds in Buckinghamshire before, in 916-917, Edward had to deal with a rebellion in Huntingdon. Edward eventually overcame the rebels who, in turn, paid homage to him. Edward had, by the late 910s, brought under his control much of what we now call Southern England. and along with the gains made by Aethelflaed, Edward's reign was a period of undoubted success for the Anglo Saxons. Edward's successor, Aethelstan, would, in grand fashion, continue the good work.

 

Henry VII: The First Tudor King

Henry Tudor, a man of relatively obscure origin, defeated the usurping king Richard III at the battle of Bosworth in 1485. He was now Henry VII, thereby becoming the first Tudor king of England which would be one of the most remarkable dynasties in all history. Henry was crowned king at Westminster Abbey, 2 short months after his victory at Bosworth. However, like the vanquished Richard III had been, Henry himself was now a usurper and usurpers would sit uneasily on the throne. And challenges to his fragile authority were quick in coming.

One of those challenges famously came from Lambert Simnel who, being only a young boy, became the figurehead of a rebellion against Henry. Lambert was crowned king of England in Dublin by the Earl of Lincoln before the rebels mustered as many men for their army as they could before launching their daring invasion of England to overthrow Henry. But the odds were stacked heavily against them due to the nature of the soldiers at their disposal. Only a small number of men were professional soldiers, these coming from Germany who had been paid to fight, but the rest of the army was little better than shambolic. Soon after their landing in England, Lambert and his men were joined in battle at Stoke in 1487 by the royalist army where Simnel's men were horribly routed. Henry, as he would do on other occasions as well, would show mercy to the young Lambert. He first set him to work in the royal kitchens before Lambert worked his way up to the position of the king's chief falconer. For Lambert, things turned out better than he could possibly have dared to hope in the aftermath of Stoke.

After the country had been divided for decades by the destructive civil war known as the Wars of the Roses, Henry knew that one of his main priorities as king was to try and bring peace to England and unite the country after a conflict that had not only torn the nation apart but even families as fathers fought against sons. Henry's claim to the crown, albeit an obscure one, came through the Lancastrian line so it made logical sense for him to look for a Yorkist bride and it would be Elizabeth of York he would marry. Elizabeth was the daughter of Edward IV and the sister of the tragic Prince In The Tower who had been murdered by their uncle Richard III. The marriage would prove to be a success. When Elizabeth died in 1503, aged only 37, Henry was deeply upset and his character over the final few years of his reign would change as a result.

Another famous rebel during Henry's reign was Perkin Warbeck. Unlike Lambert Simnel however, Perkin would prove to be a persistent problem for the king. Perkin claimed that he was the younger Prince In The Tower, Richard, Duke of York, and alleged that he had not been murdered at all but had in fact survived and escaped. As Simnel had done, Perkin had gained support in Ireland but he posed a far greater threat than Lambert had ever done as Perkin was even welcomed at the court of the French king Charles VIII. Henry had no choice but to take this matter seriously.

As the 1490s wore on, Warbeck's story continued to gain momentum as it became clear that many people believed he was indeed the young son of Edward IV. Warbeck's fame grew remarkably as he shared correspondence with Isabella of Castile and he was even introduced to the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I. Henry survived Warbeck's repeated bids for power and showed him leniency on more than one occasion. Warbeck however pushed even Henry's patience too far and he was eventually executed in 1499.

Henry is sometimes viewed as being a fairly dour and even miserable king. But this is not a fair or accurate portrayal of him. Henry had a serious countenance but he also showed real emotions when suffering bereavements. I have mentioned his reaction to the passing of his queen Elizabeth already but the year before Elizabeth had died, Henry had suffered an even weightier blow. This was the death of his son and heir Prince Arthur at Ludlow castle in April 1502. It's not certain what killed Arthur, there have been various suggestions, but what is certain is that Henry took the news badly. It was only thanks to the comforting words of Queen Elizabeth that Henry took some solace. Soon after, Elizabeth herself broke down in grief and it was Henry's turn to comfort his queen.

These touching moments shared between not only a king and queen, or a husband and wife but also a mother and father demonstrate Henry was very much a caring man. After Elizabeth's death, his gradual withdrawal from the public gaze is not a demonstration of him being a cold man but quite the opposite. He was a man who had been left shattered by grief. On his own death in 1509, Henry left England in a much healthier state then he had found it. The country was financially healthy and the Wars of the Roses was now long in the past. With Arthur dead, the crowned passed to the second of Henry's three sons who was now king Henry VIII. It's safe to say he made a bit of an impression.

 

The Life Of The Extraordinary Harald Hardrada

 Harald Hardrada is one of the most recognisable names in medieval European history. He was a giant of a man both figuratively and literally. He is best remembered now for his invasion of England in 1066 where he would be defeated and killed at the battle of Stamford Bridge. In this blog post, most of our attention is focused on Harald's early life. He was the son of a minor king named Sigurd who ruled some territories surrounding Oslo. His mother was named Asta who was also the mother of Olaf II who was born during her first marriage. After her first husband was murdered, she went on to marry Sigurd. Harald seems to have been loyal to his half brother Olaf II and fought alongside him at the battle of Stiklestad in 1030. Olaf sought to fully Christianise Norway which was still partly pagan. However, his actions were not universally popular and he met with stiff resistance. This resistance led to a rebellion which saw Olaf being driven out of Norway. He returned but was defeated and killed at Stiklestad.

Harald would have been around 15 at the time of Stiklestad, with his birth date believed to have been around 1015. Given his young age, it can be no surprise that Harald was left deeply upset at the outcome of the battle and the death of his half-brother, so much so that he had to be ushered away from the field by some of Olaf's followers. Olaf was later made a saint, in recognition of his efforts at Christianising the Pagans that remained in Norway. For Harald, the aftermath of the battle saw he and others from Olaf's defeated army take refuge in Sweden. From there, Harald's incredibly extensive journeys across Europe would begin. He and some followers sailed for Kievan Rus where they arrived at the court of Yaroslav The Wise who greeted his guests with hospitality and, perhaps as a result of this, Harald and the others would spend a couple of years in Kievan Rus where, apparently, they enjoyed themselves.

After taking their leave, Harald and his men then sailed for Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. Arriving in Constantinople, it wasn't long before Harald made contact with the Byzantine Empress Zoe who ruled jointly with her husband Michael IV and soon he joined the Varangians, the Imperial bodyguards. Harald made quite the impression and there were suggestions he should replace Georgios as commander of the Byzantine army and, unsurprisingly, a rivalry between Harald and Georgios began to emerge. Harald then led a successful Byzantine expedition against Muslim forces in Africa where he made significant captures. Onwards, this remarkable man travelled, to Sicily, Palestine, Jerusalem and even perhaps Bulgaria. The success of Harald's campaigns obviously created jealously in certain quarters and when he returned to Constantinople, he was thrown in prison.

By the time of his return to the Capital, Harald had been away from Scandinavia for over a decade and it was natural for him to be thinking about returning home. However, his resignation from the Varangian guard did not go down well with Empress Zoe who, no doubt urged on by one or two voices of men jealous of Harald's success, made him her prisoner.  Zoe was perhaps reluctant to allow this brilliant leader of men to leave her empire as he had brought so much success in capturing territories for the Byzantines but it's also been suggested that Zoe was interested in marrying Harald as Michael IV had died in 1041. Harald, however, was more interested in Zoe's niece, Maria. When she heard this, Zoe was irate and hence Harald became her prisoner.

However, there was trouble in store for Zoe who was usurped in 1042. This caused uproar across Constantinople and, in the chaos, Harald was released. He had the usurper, Michael V, blinded and sent to a monastery. Zoe reassumed power, this time ruling alongside her sister. Harald still wanted to return home but Zoe remained reluctant to let him leave and so Harald hatched a plan to escape. He kidnapped Maria before stealing two ships and sailed out of the city. Maria was unharmed and sent back to her aunt with an armed retinue. This part of Harald's plan was probably for little more reason than to demonstrate to Zoe that he was not a man she could control.

Harald returned to the court of Yaroslav the Wise in the Kievan Rus, where he would marry Yaroslav's daughter, Elizabeth. The marriage took place in late 1043/early 1044 and, after this, Harald would return to Scandinavia in preparation for the next phase of his extraordinary career which would not only see him become king of Norway but also make a bid to become king of England as well.

The Early Years of Alfred The Great

In 849, Alfred the Great was born in Wantage, berkshire. His mother was named Osburh. She was described as being a deeply religious woman who was the daughter of a man named Oslac who was, according to Alfred's biographer Asser, the cupbearer of king Aethelwulf of Wessex, the man Osburh would marry. Aethelwulf and Osburh would have 6 children, including 5 sons who would all become a king (one brother would become king of Kent, the others Wessex) with Alfred being the youngest.

Times were hard for the Anglo Saxon kingdoms during Alfred's childhood in the 850s. The menace of the Vikings was growing ever stronger. However, this didn’t mean the Anglo Saxons just rolled over, quite the opposite. In 851, when Alfred would have been just a toddler, the Vikings were defeated in battle in Somerset. but the Saxon kingdoms continued to be hard pressed. That same year, the Vikings sacked Canterbury and then London before forcing the king of Mercia into retreat after he had led an army against them and the Vikings continued on their rampage.

It was now the turn of Alfred's father, Aethelwulf, to lead an army against the invaders. Accompanying the king was his second son Aethelbald. They too joined the vikings in battle, at a site in Surrey, where, eventually, they were triumphant and inflicted substantial losses on the Vikings. Aethelwulf was a busy man and in 853, after a request from the king of Mercia, Aethelwulf helped lead a successful expedition into Wales. On the completion of this, he returned home.

By now, Alfred would have been about 5 years old and it was at this point, his father would send the young boy on a remarkable trip to Rome where he would meet Pope Leo IV. Alfred would not make the trip alongside his parents, although he would return to Rome later on alongside his father, but was taken this time by a combined escort of nobles and common people. Whilst at Rome, Alfred was anointed king by the pope which was a largely meaningless gesture. Alfred still had three older brothers (one, Aethelstan, who had been king of Kent had probably died a couple of years earlier, and there was no guarantee Alfred would ever live long enough to become king in his own right anyway. Indeed, even the long journey home would be riddled with danger for the young boy and his guardians.

During Alfred's early years, his mother Osburh died. This would have been a sad blow for the young boy. Evidently, he would have had some memories of her as a story was told how she would read to Alfred and his siblings and, on one occasion, she showed them a book of songs. She challenged her children to memorise it and whoever did so, could keep the book. This would have been done verbally as Alfred was illiterate until later on in his childhood. Despite this, it appears Alfred, the youngest and no older than 5 or 6, won and kept the book. Perhaps Alfred's continued love of learning throughout his life demonstrated both the effectiveness of Osburh taking a keen interest in her sons’ education but is perhaps also an indicator of the fondness of which he remembered his mother, long after she had died.

In 855, Alfred returned to Rome. This time, he was accompanied by his father Aethelwulf. This was because, according to Asser, Alfred was loved more by his father than any of his brothers. In Rome, they remained a year before, on the journey home, there was more excitement for the young Alfred as he and his father stayed at the court of the king of the Franks and future Holy Roman Emperor Charles The Bald. On their eventual return to Wessex, Aethelwulf brought with him Charles’ daughter Judith who would become Alfred’s stepmother for a short period of time before, scandalously, she married Aethelbald, Alfred's brother, on Aethelwulf's death in 858. This second marriage caused widespread controversy.

Aethelbald had proved he was not afraid to cause controversy. Before his father and Alfred had returned from the continent, he went into open rebellion and Aethelwulf agreed to divide Wessex between him and his son. Aethelwulf reigned in the east and Aethelwulf in the west. As mentioned, on Aethelwulf's death, Aethelbald quickly married Judith, his former stepmother, much to the pair’s disgrace. Aethelbald's sole reign however was not a long one and he died in 860 after a period of rule which was full of lawlessness, according to Asser. 

By the time of Aethelbald's death, Alfred would have been about 11 years old. As we’ve already seen examples of, he appears to have had a very good relationship with both his mother and father. Despite Alfred being illiterate until he was 12, he loved poetry and could, as we’ve seen with the story of Alfred and his mother, recite and memorise extremely well. He was also a well mannered child and he conducted himself in a way that was pleasing to both his parents. He was a keen hunter and was highly skilled in the chase where he enjoyed considerable success.

By 860, the 11 year old Alfred's life had changed significantly. Both his parents were dead and two of his brothers had also gone the same way. Although by no means a guarantee, royal power had moved significantly closer to Alfred. When he did eventually succeed as king of Wessex in 871, he would grow to become the most important king in all English history. and his formative years would have been incredibly important in shaping him into the man and king he would become. He would have seen first hand the dangers posed by the Vikings. The lack of loyalty Aethelbald had shown to their father would have also been a good lesson for Alfred to learn and he would have also learned all about the fragility of life in the 9th century. He had only one sister remaining of his immediate family by the time of his succession. Alfred, as king, would have to be brave in this age where death was always close at hand.

The Trials and Tribulations Of Life On A Medieval Crusade

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The life of a medieval crusader could be tough to say the least with the prospect of severe hardship never far away. Crusades took different forms, in different places for different reasons. The type of crusade most people will think of will be the ones fought in the Holy Land with the aim of retaking lands, even Jerusalem itself, from Muslim forces. But, of course, there were other types of crusades as well. The battle between Islam and Christianity didn’t just take place in the east. In the 700s, Islam took control of Iberia and for nearly 800 years retained a presence in the peninsula until the surrender of Granada in 1492. In northern Europe, efforts were made to conquer and Christianise areas that remained stubbornly pagan.and crusades were called against supposedly heretical groups in southern France. So, crusades, as you can see, took different forms and for those participating, challenges of all kinds that would have to be overcome.

Even the Man who called what would be known as The First Crusade, Pope Urban II, was well aware of the magnitude of what he was asking from his Christian flock across Europe. Urban had been asked by the Byzantine emperor Alexius I Komnenos for help against the Seljuk Turks. Urban would heed the call. In a letter written in late 1095, Urban relayed a tale of woe from the east with Jerusalem having been captured by the Turks and churches being destroyed. Urban’s preaching for the crusade would be overwhelmingly successful as Europe’s Christians responded in huge numbers. But Urban was under no illusions as to what he was asking from his Holy army.

In his sermons, Urban bluntly told his crusaders what they could expect. Sickness, hunger, thirst and many other trials and tribulations awaited them. But such was the strength of feeling against the apparent injustices facing their fellow Christians in the east, that such hardship would prove to be no deterrent.

One of the first obstacles to overcome for crusading armies was, of course, making the long journey to their destination, both by land and by sea. The crusading armies would have to travel through various kingdoms and territories and, understandably, this caused tension among the local people. A potentially aggressive army marching through your land was not exactly a welcome sight. The crusaders would need to stock up on food and provisions and during the early stages of The Second Crusade, tensions boiled over as the crusaders were accused of plundering in an overly aggressive manner. The Byzantine emperor Manuel Ii had sent an army to keep an eye on the crusaders and a battle broke out between the Byzantines and crusaders with the Byzantines winning the day. Fighting enemies was one thing, fighting people supposedly on your side quite another.

 

When they did arrive on crusade, in particular for those in the Holy Land and Egypt, the Christians faced the distinct disadvantage of being in terrain that was completely alien to them with summer heat being absolutely oppressive. One tactic that was used by the enemy was to poison the water in wells. Thirst could become truly diabolical and unbearable.

And famine for a crusading army was never far away either. After taking Antioch during The First Crusade, the Christians were then besieged by a Muslim army which then led to a terrible famine inside Antioch. Men resorted to eating the innards of goats and even the head of a horse. Some would resort to taking blood from horses that were still alive.

To us today, such suffering seems almost senseless, considering the effort that was undertaken to go on crusade. Travelling thousands, only to be surrounded by fearsome and hostile enemies, to be gripped by Hunger, thirst and disease, commonplace In medieval armies, not just crusaders, may seem Baffling. But context must be added. Crusaders are sometimes seen as being opportunistic, self serving individuals looking to enrich themselves. That’s too simple. The sheer effort it took to go on crusade, whether to the heat of the east or the cold of Northern Europe, and stay there even if the crusade was evidently not going to be successful, could not have been fueled merely by material gain. The promises made by Urban Ii and then later Popes of remission of sins would have had a tremendous impact on men and women in a deeply religious age.

The harsh reality of a crusade should not be underestimated. During The Second Crusade, the Holy Roman Emperor Conrad III wrote how, during a journey that was to last 20 days, food ran out half way through. And during The First Crusade, Stephen, Count of Blois, father of the man of the same name who would become king of England in 1135, initially wrote enthusiastically about the crusade. But his enthusiasm gradually ran out. Before the capture of Antioch, Stephen left the siege and feigned illness before his eventual departure for home. Unfortunately, he got an ear bashing from his wife on his return to the west. He gave in and returned eastwards where he was eventually killed. Crusading was hard not just on the common soldier but also on the more powerful figures leading the crusade. It’s perhaps not surprising that the success of the crusades was mixed at best.

Cnut: The Viking Who Conquered England

 Although the people of early 11th century England may not have particularly relished the thought of having a foreign ruler, there was one distinct advantage of having Cnut succeed as king. Being a Dane himself, Cnut could now provide the English populace with some respite from the frequent Viking raids that had blown up again during the reign of Aethelred The Unready after an extended period of calm during the rule of Edgar The Peaceful. One of his first moves was to eliminate the men who had killed Edmund Ironside, Cnut’s rival to the throne whom he had defeated in the Battle of Ashingdon, including a man named Eadric who had no sense of loyalty and had switched allegiances between Edmund and Cnut all too frequently during their struggle for power. Eadric was apparently a rather arrogant man as well and gave an impertinent response to Cnut when he was facing charges of Edmund’s murder. 

Cnut knew two things at this stage. One, he couldn’t trust Eadric and needed to be rid of him. Secondly, by getting rid of Eadric, it would be a good propaganda move to try and earn some trust with the Saxon nobility by executing the man who had had their king murdered (allegedly while Edmund was going to the toilet). Make no mistake, Cnut was not sorry to hear the news of the death of Edmund; Edmund was, after all, still a potentially big thorn in Cnut’s side despite Cnut’s major triumph at Ashingdon. But with Edmund out of the way, Cnut needed to score points with the people he now ruled over and Eadric’s death helped in that regard.

Cnut initially favoured Danes in positions of power but he was careful not to alienate the Saxon nobility as well and over time, he treated them on a more equal footing. Eventually, the Saxons would have an equal say when councils and assemblies were held as well as playing a prominent role in Cnut’s armies. Again, showing considerable self awareness when it came to his public image, Cnut made extensive repair work to churches and monasteries which had suffered at the hands of the Viking attacks. He also built new churches, including at the site of his victory at Ashingdon. The extent of Cnut’s efforts to repair some of the damage he and his father’s forces had caused won him praise and his reputation benefitted as a direct result.  To further bolster his position, he married Emma of Normandy, the second wife and widow of Aethelred The Unready, which tied him a little closer to the Saxon nobility. Cnut ,though, was still a man of his time and he wanted to eliminate potential threats to his rule. Cnut had the son of Aethelred, named Eadwig who was born from Aethelred’s first marriage, murdered and also wanted the young sons of Edmund killed but the deed never took place and they ended up at the court of the Hungarian king.

After establishing considerable power in Scandinavia, Cnut, in 1031, travelled to Rome. He made it plain to the English people, in letters sent home, that he had prayed for forgiveness for past sins. But these communications weren’t all pleasant reading for the English nobles. Cnut, in no uncertain terms, demanded a rather extensive tax to be paid and if it hadn’t been collected in full by the time Cnut returned from Denmark, where he was to journey to after leaving Rome, then there’d be hell to pay. It says something for Cnut’s standing by this point that his demands were met and that the tax continued to be observed over 200 years after his death.

Cnut died in 1035. Shortly before he died, he visited Glastonbury and the, now lost, tomb of Edmund Ironside. Cnut had made frequent reference to Edmund as being his “brother” and given the length of time that passed since Edmund’s death, it would appear Cnut felt some genuine affection or respect for the man he had only overcome because of Eadric’s duplicity. However, a bigger factor in Cnut’s visit, is undoubtedly his desire to maintain his reputation in the country that the Danes had finally conquered after over 200 years of raids. One chronicle describes him as “magnificent”. Cnut had ruled shrewdly and with a firm hand. Of the four Danish kings of England, he would be the only genuine success.

Henry II And His Rule In The Years 1158-1163

 

In a previous blog, we looked at the early years of the reign of Henry II, beginning with his accession in 1154 up until the year of 1157. The first few years of his reign were successful but the following period would bring different challenges for Henry.

Trouble arose between Henry and Malcolm IV of Scotland early in 1158 after the king of Scots had given Henry reason to mistrust him which led to the English king refusing to knight the young Malcolm. Henry eventually knighted Malcolm 18 months later after the Scots’ king joined him on an expedition to France. The Welsh then went into rebellion which would not have been any great shock to Henry as they had been troublesome before and, after subduing them once again, he went one step further to ensure their good behaviour by taking hostages. Satisfied, Henry, that same month of August 1158, travelled to France to meet King Louis VII.

A marriage agreement was reached between the English and French crowns for Henry’s infant son, also called Henry, to marry Louis’ daughter, who was, at the time, literally a new born. Thankfully, they waited until the little girl has reached the grand old age of two before the ceremony actually takes place. Chancellor Thomas Becket played a key role in negotiations, travelling to Paris where he was greeted honourably. In September of 1158, Queen Eleanor gave birth to another son for Henry, this boy is named Geoffrey.

If things seemed fairly amicable between Henry and Louis at this stage, then things could have gone wrong in 1159. Henry laid claim to Toulouse which he proceeded to lay siege too. However, Louis intervened, acting on behalf of his brother in law who is also laying claim to Toulouse. Louis enters the town but this doesn’t stop Becket from urging his king to escalate the situation which could potentially threaten war. Henry keeps a cooler head, though, and in October of that year, he pulls back from Toulouse. However, Henry appears to bear a grudge against the French king and he attacks some of Louis’ lands near Beauvais in retaliation. The situation threatened to escalate again as Henry began to capture key fortresses. Louis, maybe considering he made a mistake interfering in Toulouse, has little option but to sue for peace. In 1160, hostilities began to simmer down and the two kings meet on numerous occasions, including at a council to discuss a disputed papacy. Henry’s son, Prince Henry, then paid homage to Louis for the Duchy of Normandy. Again, although on the surface it looked as though relations had been satisfactorily stabilised, it’s clear Henry didn’t trust his counterpart. Across the winter of 1160/1161, he built new fortifications in his French territories and completed extensive building work on already existing strongholds.

In April of 1161, Archbishop of Canterbury, Theobald of Bec died.  Henry’s choice as his replacement is Chancellor Becket who is extremely reluctant to accept and it would take over a year before he is finally consecrated as Archbishop. This would prove to be one of the most fateful decisions in medieval history.

Whilst Henry attempted to persuade Becket, his rocky relationship with Louis continued and throughout 1161, they continued to bicker although they would patch things up in October of that year. Finally, in the Spring of 1162, Becket finally agreed to become Archbishop of Canterbury and he is consecrated in June of that year. At the time of Becket’s confirmed election, it would have been a boost to Henry. He had filled the most important position in the church in England with a close ally which, he hoped, would prove crucial in him rooting out the corruption in the church that had set in during the reign of King Stephen. He could not possibly have envisaged what was to follow.

In September of 1162, Henry and Louis meet with the pope to try and settle their differences. Relatively content, Henry returns to England a few months later and early in the New Year, he meets with his new Archbishop of Canterbury. In March of 1163, Henry oversaw a trial of a nobleman who is accused of spreading false rumours of the king’s death and the matter is resolved around a month later. Also, in March of that year, Henry held a council regarding the vacant bishopric of London. Pope Alexander approves of the election of Gilbert, Bishop of Hereford. However, Gilbert is reluctant and it takes some prompting from the king to finally accept a few weeks later.

Meanwhile, Becket and the Archbishop of York travel to the council of Tours where they meet Pope Alexander. In the summer of 1163, Henry has homage paid to him by Malcolm of Scotland. Tensions start to grow between the king and Becket in July 1163. A member of Becket’s clergy was stood accused by one of Henry’s justiciars of murder. The clergyman was, perhaps unsurpisingly, cleared by the church but the justiciar pressed the issue further, only to be met with hostility. Becket has the man tried for murder but he is again acquitted although found guilty of contempt. Henry is unamused by the sham trial and makes it known, during a speech, that Becket is not in his good books.

After a period of plotting his next move against Becket, Henry, in October 1163, holds a synod in which he makes abundantly clear that he is not happy with the state of the English church and the corruption of its clergymen. Henry then demands the right to try church clerks accused of committing crimes only for Becket and his bishops to point blank refuse. To say Henry is growing irritated is to put it mildly. The king withdraws his son, Prince Henry, from Becket’s supervision and also seizes two of Becket’s castles at Ely and Berkhamstead. The following day, Henry departs the synod in a furious mood. A meeting is held soon after the disastrous synod to try and patch things up between Becket and Henry but, again, tensions rise between and, again, a compromise fails to materialise.

An Insight Into The Kings of England From William The Conqueror To King John

The purpose of this blog is to provide the reader with an insight into some of England's medieval kings. I have provided a quote from different medieval chronicles for each king. The quotes vary on what they discuss. For example, for William I, William of Malmesbury discusses The Conqueror's obsession with money and for William II, we look at the king's physical appearance. I hope the blog gives an insight into these remarkable men.

 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR r.1066-1100

“ To scrape together money, William cared not how he would get it. He sought all opportunities to gain money. He would say and do almost anything, unbecoming such great majesty, where the hope of money allured him. For dread of his enemies, William would drain the country of money, in order to repel his enemies attacks”.

(Quote- William of Malmesbury).

William of Malmesbury is certainly not exaggerating when he says William The Conqueror feared English rebellions against his rule. The Norman king built literally hundreds of Motte and Bailey castles across England, in order to bring the country fully under his command.

WILLIAM II  r.1087-1100

“William Rufus was "well set; his complexion florid, his hair yellow; of open countenance; different coloured eyes varying with certain glittering specks; of astonishing strength, though not very tall, and his belly rather projecting." (Quote-WILLIAM OF MALMESBURY)

Whilst William II is a rather forgettable monarch, he certainly had an interesting physical appearance. 

 

HENRY I r.1100-1135

WILLIAM OF MALMESBURY : "Henry passed his early years in pursuit of the liberal arts, and so thoroughly imbibed the sweets of learning, that no warlike commotions, no pressure of business, could ever erase them from his noble mind, although he never read much openly, nor displayed his attainments except sparingly. His learning, though obtained by snatches, aided him in the science of governing”.

Henry I was the youngest of the four sons of William The Conqueror and his interest in learning is indicative of the fact he probably never expected to be king. Although one of his brothers died when Henry was only a toddler, his other brothers, Robert and William, were still ahead of him in the pecking order. However, circumstances could change rapidly in the middle ages and so it proved for Henry.

Stephen  r.1135-1154

“Stephen was a man of activity but imprudent, strenuous of war, of great mind in attempting works of difficulty, mild and compassionate to his enemies and affable.” 

Whilst these words, written by William of Malmesbury, may look fairly flattering but the reality was that Stephen was a weak man and a terrible king. What made his reign all the worse is that he was not the rightful monarch. The crown should have been that of his cousin Empress Matilda. And so his reign was described as being a time when “Christ And His Angels Slept”.

Henry II r.1154-1189

“In these early days (of his reign) Henry II paid due regard to public order and was at great pains to revive the vigour of the laws in England, which had seemed under King Stephen to be dead and buried”.

As this quote from William of Newburgh gives a small indication of, Henry was a proactive and energetic young man at the time of his succession. He was exactly what the country needed after decades of turmoil.

Richard The Lionheart r.1189-1199

“Since Richard had resisted his father and had done much to stir up the French factions that were hostile to the Normans, he had earned the disapproval of good and wise men. Now, as king, he sought to make up for all his past excesses by doing all could to show honour to his mother. He hoped that his obedience to his mother (Eleanor of Aquitaine) would atone for his offences against his father”. 

(quote-Ralph of Diceto)

Whilst Ralph’s comments make for a nice story, it’s doubtful Richard changed his behaviour towards his mother Eleanor in any particular way. He was Eleanor's favourite of the 4 sons she had with Henry II (who survived into adulthood) and the first thing he did as king was release Eleanor from the 15 year long captivity Henry had sentenced her too for her role in Richard’s and his brothers rebellions.

John r.1199-1216

“When John came to Sleaford, which he had taken from the Bishop of Lincoln during the war, his illness grew worse and he was carried on a litter to Newark, another castle of the Bishop of Lincoln, but which the king had taken possession of some time ago. Here, laid low by illness, he died on the 19th October 1216.)

(quote- Ralph of Coggeshall

Those words describe John’s final moments. He was a desperate man on the run, from his own subjects. John had been a selfish, greedy, at times cruel and often incompetent king. His death would have come as a relief to many although the trouble in England was not over yet. So bad had John’s reign been, that there was a foreign prince in the country trying to seize the English crown and John’s death didn’t deter that prince from continuing his quest.

The Early Years Of The Reign Of Henry II: 1154-1157

With the accession of Henry as king, hope in England was reborn. The population had been left with a depressing sense of being downtrodden as the civil war between Stephen and Matilda rumbled on. However, the English people, in Henry, could see an energetic and vibrant young king ready to provide a return to the days of law and order of his grandfather Henry I. A couple of years before becoming king, Henry had made a spectacular marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine, the former wife of Louis VII of France. Eleanor had not been happy with her marriage to the French king. Rumours had spread that Eleanor had an affair with her uncle during the disastrous Second Crusade, of which she and Louis participated in. On their return to the West, Eleanor forced a divorce from Louis before rapidly marrying Henry, the then 18 year old Duke of Normandy. Eleanor was over a decade older than her new husband. The match with Eleanor made Henry a dangerous rival for Louis and the French king knew it and even more so when Eleanor quickly gave Henry a son, William who was born in 1153, something that she had failed to do for Louis.

 Henry and Eleanor’s marriage would be one that would go down in history.

By the time of his coronation, the week before Christmas of 1154, everything looked good for Henry. He had a wife who brought with her extensive territories, helping Henry to build his Angevin empire, and who would also produce for him a number of sons and heirs after William and there was genuine enthusiasm for his rule. Henry was crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Theobald of Bec, at Westminster Abbey and he set to work almost immediately.

Image: Henry and Eleanor.

One of Henry’s first acts was to remove the swarm of mercenaries that had been hired by Stephen during the anarchy. Many of these mercenaries had been invited over from Flanders. No doubt, Henry wished to be rid of them as they were a living and breathing reminder of the troubles that had gone before. The king made it clear, in no uncertain terms, to the mercenaries that they were to adhere to the departure date given to them or their lives could be in jeopardy. Unsurprisingly, they did as they were told and exited the country without delay. There were other reminders of the civil war too. Castles and other structures had popped up over the last twenty years. Henry demolished a number of them although kept some for strategic purposes.

Henry proactively ensured that law and justice was kept throughout the land. The king kept a close watch on his judges and other law enforcers to ensure they abstained from corruption. The church also benefitted as Henry made sure, when vacancies arose, they were awarded to honest members of the clergy. Under the watchful eye of the king and his chancellor Thomas Becket, as well as the nobility whom Henry had managed to unify, England began to enjoy, as one chronicler puts it, “a second springtime”.

In the early months of his reign, Henry toured the country, granting extensive numbers of charters. In January 1155, Henry was at Oxford where he oversaw a legal issue for a certain Abbot named Bernard. From there, he travelled northwards. Henry would gain a reputation as a king who not only travelled far and wide but moved at a phenomenal pace as well. You had to be on your toes if you were part of his royal entourage. Not only did Henry travel long distances at an incredible rate, he also gave his entourage very mixed information when it came to travel arrangements. For instance, he would say that he and his people were to set off first thing in the morning, only for the king to stay in bed until midday. Other occasions, he would state they were to set off later in the day only for him to change his mind and set off early, leaving everyone else scrambling to catch up. It may well be Henry took some enjoyment out of creating such chaos. One chronicler accuses Henry of telling his entourage, when they were travelling, that they’d be staying overnight in comfortable lodgings, only to change plans again and, in the words of that same chronicler, leave his people to stay in a hovel not fit for a pig. Henry definitely enjoyed watching the arguments that followed as people fought over who slept where. Henry was definitely a man with a sense of humour.

In February of 1155, Henry arrived at Nottingham. It’s possible that he travelled there to investigate the mysterious death of the Earl of Chester. The man who was suspected of playing a part in the Earl’s death had been residing at Nottingham. When he heard that the king was close at hand, the suspect fled. That same month, Eleanor gives birth to a son, who is named after his father. This boy would be known to history as the Young King. This name came about after he was crowned co-king alongside his father in 1170. However, this would prove to be a mere symbolic gesture on the part of Henry II and the Young King, alongside his younger brothers, would gradually become increasingly frustrated under what they considered their father’s rather suffocating hold over them.

Henry then gained possession of two castles which had been held by the Earl of Hereford who had previously been at odds with the crown. This would have been pleasing for the king as it demonstrated that he was getting very much to grips with what had been a lawless country during the reign of Stephen. It may only have been a relatively small gain but the symbolism would not have been lost on Henry.

Henry then turned his thoughts to the future. He wanted to ensure the nobility’s loyalty to his two sons, the infant William and the new born Henry. So, he held a council at Wallingford where oaths of loyalty were taken. Things appeared to be going well for the new king but matters would soon become more difficult for Henry. In May of 1155, a man by the name of Hugh De Mortimer goes into revolt against the king. The dispute drags on for a couple of months, which involves several sieges, until, at Bridgnorth, a peace is agreed.

Whilst the squabble with De Mortimer was going on, Henry received some bitter news. His oldest son William, just a toddler, had tragically died. In an age of high infant mortality, this was not exactly unexpected but a gut wrenching blow for the king. On a more coldly pragmatic note, William’s death left the king with one new born as his heir. To protect his dynasty, Henry would have to produce more sons to guard against the perils of childhood in the 12th century.

Empress Matilda was still playing a significant role on the political scene. She warned her son against the risks of a campaign he planned to make in Ireland, one of potential conquest. It would have been a seriously risky move for a new king and Henry duly continues his progress throughout England. Henry spends the Christmas of 1155 in London where he makes plans to travel to France to pay homage to Louis VII for his French possessions that had come to him through right of his marriage to Eleanor and from his inheritance of the lands previously held by his father. While he is gone, England’s administration is entrusted to Eleanor.

Eleanor would require help with running the country as, at the time of Henry’s departure for the continent, she was pregnant again. And in the summer of 1156, she gave birth to a daughter, named Matilda. Meanwhile, in France, the king was capturing territories that were rightfully his but whose citizens were refusing to acknowledge him as their ruler.

Henry enjoys Christmas at Bordeaux and, alongside his mother who appears to have joined him, he establishes an abbey at Cherburgh early in the New Year. Both Henry and Matilda also grant a charter to Silly Abbey in Argentan. In attendance of the confirmation of this charter is chancellor Becket. 

Despite their potential rivalry, Henry and Louis VII remain on good terms and Henry is granted possession of an abbey at Tours by the French king.

Over a year after his departure for France, Henry finally returns to England in April of 1157. Henry’s attentions are then turned northwards to Scotland and their king Malcolm IV. Malcolm relinquishes his claims to Newcastle and Carlisle. The Scots king agrees to meet Henry at Derbyshire and spends some time at the English court. Malcolm accompanies Henry to Chester where he pays the English king homage.

Wales proved to be a little more problematic for Henry but, after some initial rebellions, he managed to subdue the Welsh who then paid him homage. To further bolster security in Wales, Henry then significantly strengthened his castles there. 1157 had been a good year for Henry and, in September, it got even better as Eleanor gave birth to a boy, called Richard. This little baby would grow to be a force of nature and cause his father no end of problems but Henry, of course, was not to know this and the birth of Richard was a cause of great joy for the king and queen. The first three years of Henry's reign had been a success with England being given so much needed stability by this young, energetic king.