Cnut: The Viking Who Conquered England

 Although the people of early 11th century England may not have particularly relished the thought of having a foreign ruler, there was one distinct advantage of having Cnut succeed as king. Being a Dane himself, Cnut could now provide the English populace with some respite from the frequent Viking raids that had blown up again during the reign of Aethelred The Unready after an extended period of calm during the rule of Edgar The Peaceful. One of his first moves was to eliminate the men who had killed Edmund Ironside, Cnut’s rival to the throne whom he had defeated in the Battle of Ashingdon, including a man named Eadric who had no sense of loyalty and had switched allegiances between Edmund and Cnut all too frequently during their struggle for power. Eadric was apparently a rather arrogant man as well and gave an impertinent response to Cnut when he was facing charges of Edmund’s murder. 

Cnut knew two things at this stage. One, he couldn’t trust Eadric and needed to be rid of him. Secondly, by getting rid of Eadric, it would be a good propaganda move to try and earn some trust with the Saxon nobility by executing the man who had had their king murdered (allegedly while Edmund was going to the toilet). Make no mistake, Cnut was not sorry to hear the news of the death of Edmund; Edmund was, after all, still a potentially big thorn in Cnut’s side despite Cnut’s major triumph at Ashingdon. But with Edmund out of the way, Cnut needed to score points with the people he now ruled over and Eadric’s death helped in that regard.

Cnut initially favoured Danes in positions of power but he was careful not to alienate the Saxon nobility as well and over time, he treated them on a more equal footing. Eventually, the Saxons would have an equal say when councils and assemblies were held as well as playing a prominent role in Cnut’s armies. Again, showing considerable self awareness when it came to his public image, Cnut made extensive repair work to churches and monasteries which had suffered at the hands of the Viking attacks. He also built new churches, including at the site of his victory at Ashingdon. The extent of Cnut’s efforts to repair some of the damage he and his father’s forces had caused won him praise and his reputation benefitted as a direct result.  To further bolster his position, he married Emma of Normandy, the second wife and widow of Aethelred The Unready, which tied him a little closer to the Saxon nobility. Cnut ,though, was still a man of his time and he wanted to eliminate potential threats to his rule. Cnut had the son of Aethelred, named Eadwig who was born from Aethelred’s first marriage, murdered and also wanted the young sons of Edmund killed but the deed never took place and they ended up at the court of the Hungarian king.

After establishing considerable power in Scandinavia, Cnut, in 1031, travelled to Rome. He made it plain to the English people, in letters sent home, that he had prayed for forgiveness for past sins. But these communications weren’t all pleasant reading for the English nobles. Cnut, in no uncertain terms, demanded a rather extensive tax to be paid and if it hadn’t been collected in full by the time Cnut returned from Denmark, where he was to journey to after leaving Rome, then there’d be hell to pay. It says something for Cnut’s standing by this point that his demands were met and that the tax continued to be observed over 200 years after his death.

Cnut died in 1035. Shortly before he died, he visited Glastonbury and the, now lost, tomb of Edmund Ironside. Cnut had made frequent reference to Edmund as being his “brother” and given the length of time that passed since Edmund’s death, it would appear Cnut felt some genuine affection or respect for the man he had only overcome because of Eadric’s duplicity. However, a bigger factor in Cnut’s visit, is undoubtedly his desire to maintain his reputation in the country that the Danes had finally conquered after over 200 years of raids. One chronicle describes him as “magnificent”. Cnut had ruled shrewdly and with a firm hand. Of the four Danish kings of England, he would be the only genuine success.

Henry II And His Rule In The Years 1158-1163

 

In a previous blog, we looked at the early years of the reign of Henry II, beginning with his accession in 1154 up until the year of 1157. The first few years of his reign were successful but the following period would bring different challenges for Henry.

Trouble arose between Henry and Malcolm IV of Scotland early in 1158 after the king of Scots had given Henry reason to mistrust him which led to the English king refusing to knight the young Malcolm. Henry eventually knighted Malcolm 18 months later after the Scots’ king joined him on an expedition to France. The Welsh then went into rebellion which would not have been any great shock to Henry as they had been troublesome before and, after subduing them once again, he went one step further to ensure their good behaviour by taking hostages. Satisfied, Henry, that same month of August 1158, travelled to France to meet King Louis VII.

A marriage agreement was reached between the English and French crowns for Henry’s infant son, also called Henry, to marry Louis’ daughter, who was, at the time, literally a new born. Thankfully, they waited until the little girl has reached the grand old age of two before the ceremony actually takes place. Chancellor Thomas Becket played a key role in negotiations, travelling to Paris where he was greeted honourably. In September of 1158, Queen Eleanor gave birth to another son for Henry, this boy is named Geoffrey.

If things seemed fairly amicable between Henry and Louis at this stage, then things could have gone wrong in 1159. Henry laid claim to Toulouse which he proceeded to lay siege too. However, Louis intervened, acting on behalf of his brother in law who is also laying claim to Toulouse. Louis enters the town but this doesn’t stop Becket from urging his king to escalate the situation which could potentially threaten war. Henry keeps a cooler head, though, and in October of that year, he pulls back from Toulouse. However, Henry appears to bear a grudge against the French king and he attacks some of Louis’ lands near Beauvais in retaliation. The situation threatened to escalate again as Henry began to capture key fortresses. Louis, maybe considering he made a mistake interfering in Toulouse, has little option but to sue for peace. In 1160, hostilities began to simmer down and the two kings meet on numerous occasions, including at a council to discuss a disputed papacy. Henry’s son, Prince Henry, then paid homage to Louis for the Duchy of Normandy. Again, although on the surface it looked as though relations had been satisfactorily stabilised, it’s clear Henry didn’t trust his counterpart. Across the winter of 1160/1161, he built new fortifications in his French territories and completed extensive building work on already existing strongholds.

In April of 1161, Archbishop of Canterbury, Theobald of Bec died.  Henry’s choice as his replacement is Chancellor Becket who is extremely reluctant to accept and it would take over a year before he is finally consecrated as Archbishop. This would prove to be one of the most fateful decisions in medieval history.

Whilst Henry attempted to persuade Becket, his rocky relationship with Louis continued and throughout 1161, they continued to bicker although they would patch things up in October of that year. Finally, in the Spring of 1162, Becket finally agreed to become Archbishop of Canterbury and he is consecrated in June of that year. At the time of Becket’s confirmed election, it would have been a boost to Henry. He had filled the most important position in the church in England with a close ally which, he hoped, would prove crucial in him rooting out the corruption in the church that had set in during the reign of King Stephen. He could not possibly have envisaged what was to follow.

In September of 1162, Henry and Louis meet with the pope to try and settle their differences. Relatively content, Henry returns to England a few months later and early in the New Year, he meets with his new Archbishop of Canterbury. In March of 1163, Henry oversaw a trial of a nobleman who is accused of spreading false rumours of the king’s death and the matter is resolved around a month later. Also, in March of that year, Henry held a council regarding the vacant bishopric of London. Pope Alexander approves of the election of Gilbert, Bishop of Hereford. However, Gilbert is reluctant and it takes some prompting from the king to finally accept a few weeks later.

Meanwhile, Becket and the Archbishop of York travel to the council of Tours where they meet Pope Alexander. In the summer of 1163, Henry has homage paid to him by Malcolm of Scotland. Tensions start to grow between the king and Becket in July 1163. A member of Becket’s clergy was stood accused by one of Henry’s justiciars of murder. The clergyman was, perhaps unsurpisingly, cleared by the church but the justiciar pressed the issue further, only to be met with hostility. Becket has the man tried for murder but he is again acquitted although found guilty of contempt. Henry is unamused by the sham trial and makes it known, during a speech, that Becket is not in his good books.

After a period of plotting his next move against Becket, Henry, in October 1163, holds a synod in which he makes abundantly clear that he is not happy with the state of the English church and the corruption of its clergymen. Henry then demands the right to try church clerks accused of committing crimes only for Becket and his bishops to point blank refuse. To say Henry is growing irritated is to put it mildly. The king withdraws his son, Prince Henry, from Becket’s supervision and also seizes two of Becket’s castles at Ely and Berkhamstead. The following day, Henry departs the synod in a furious mood. A meeting is held soon after the disastrous synod to try and patch things up between Becket and Henry but, again, tensions rise between and, again, a compromise fails to materialise.

An Insight Into The Kings of England From William The Conqueror To King John

The purpose of this blog is to provide the reader with an insight into some of England's medieval kings. I have provided a quote from different medieval chronicles for each king. The quotes vary on what they discuss. For example, for William I, William of Malmesbury discusses The Conqueror's obsession with money and for William II, we look at the king's physical appearance. I hope the blog gives an insight into these remarkable men.

 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR r.1066-1100

“ To scrape together money, William cared not how he would get it. He sought all opportunities to gain money. He would say and do almost anything, unbecoming such great majesty, where the hope of money allured him. For dread of his enemies, William would drain the country of money, in order to repel his enemies attacks”.

(Quote- William of Malmesbury).

William of Malmesbury is certainly not exaggerating when he says William The Conqueror feared English rebellions against his rule. The Norman king built literally hundreds of Motte and Bailey castles across England, in order to bring the country fully under his command.

WILLIAM II  r.1087-1100

“William Rufus was "well set; his complexion florid, his hair yellow; of open countenance; different coloured eyes varying with certain glittering specks; of astonishing strength, though not very tall, and his belly rather projecting." (Quote-WILLIAM OF MALMESBURY)

Whilst William II is a rather forgettable monarch, he certainly had an interesting physical appearance. 

 

HENRY I r.1100-1135

WILLIAM OF MALMESBURY : "Henry passed his early years in pursuit of the liberal arts, and so thoroughly imbibed the sweets of learning, that no warlike commotions, no pressure of business, could ever erase them from his noble mind, although he never read much openly, nor displayed his attainments except sparingly. His learning, though obtained by snatches, aided him in the science of governing”.

Henry I was the youngest of the four sons of William The Conqueror and his interest in learning is indicative of the fact he probably never expected to be king. Although one of his brothers died when Henry was only a toddler, his other brothers, Robert and William, were still ahead of him in the pecking order. However, circumstances could change rapidly in the middle ages and so it proved for Henry.

Stephen  r.1135-1154

“Stephen was a man of activity but imprudent, strenuous of war, of great mind in attempting works of difficulty, mild and compassionate to his enemies and affable.” 

Whilst these words, written by William of Malmesbury, may look fairly flattering but the reality was that Stephen was a weak man and a terrible king. What made his reign all the worse is that he was not the rightful monarch. The crown should have been that of his cousin Empress Matilda. And so his reign was described as being a time when “Christ And His Angels Slept”.

Henry II r.1154-1189

“In these early days (of his reign) Henry II paid due regard to public order and was at great pains to revive the vigour of the laws in England, which had seemed under King Stephen to be dead and buried”.

As this quote from William of Newburgh gives a small indication of, Henry was a proactive and energetic young man at the time of his succession. He was exactly what the country needed after decades of turmoil.

Richard The Lionheart r.1189-1199

“Since Richard had resisted his father and had done much to stir up the French factions that were hostile to the Normans, he had earned the disapproval of good and wise men. Now, as king, he sought to make up for all his past excesses by doing all could to show honour to his mother. He hoped that his obedience to his mother (Eleanor of Aquitaine) would atone for his offences against his father”. 

(quote-Ralph of Diceto)

Whilst Ralph’s comments make for a nice story, it’s doubtful Richard changed his behaviour towards his mother Eleanor in any particular way. He was Eleanor's favourite of the 4 sons she had with Henry II (who survived into adulthood) and the first thing he did as king was release Eleanor from the 15 year long captivity Henry had sentenced her too for her role in Richard’s and his brothers rebellions.

John r.1199-1216

“When John came to Sleaford, which he had taken from the Bishop of Lincoln during the war, his illness grew worse and he was carried on a litter to Newark, another castle of the Bishop of Lincoln, but which the king had taken possession of some time ago. Here, laid low by illness, he died on the 19th October 1216.)

(quote- Ralph of Coggeshall

Those words describe John’s final moments. He was a desperate man on the run, from his own subjects. John had been a selfish, greedy, at times cruel and often incompetent king. His death would have come as a relief to many although the trouble in England was not over yet. So bad had John’s reign been, that there was a foreign prince in the country trying to seize the English crown and John’s death didn’t deter that prince from continuing his quest.

The Early Years Of The Reign Of Henry II: 1154-1157

With the accession of Henry as king, hope in England was reborn. The population had been left with a depressing sense of being downtrodden as the civil war between Stephen and Matilda rumbled on. However, the English people, in Henry, could see an energetic and vibrant young king ready to provide a return to the days of law and order of his grandfather Henry I. A couple of years before becoming king, Henry had made a spectacular marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine, the former wife of Louis VII of France. Eleanor had not been happy with her marriage to the French king. Rumours had spread that Eleanor had an affair with her uncle during the disastrous Second Crusade, of which she and Louis participated in. On their return to the West, Eleanor forced a divorce from Louis before rapidly marrying Henry, the then 18 year old Duke of Normandy. Eleanor was over a decade older than her new husband. The match with Eleanor made Henry a dangerous rival for Louis and the French king knew it and even more so when Eleanor quickly gave Henry a son, William who was born in 1153, something that she had failed to do for Louis.

 Henry and Eleanor’s marriage would be one that would go down in history.

By the time of his coronation, the week before Christmas of 1154, everything looked good for Henry. He had a wife who brought with her extensive territories, helping Henry to build his Angevin empire, and who would also produce for him a number of sons and heirs after William and there was genuine enthusiasm for his rule. Henry was crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Theobald of Bec, at Westminster Abbey and he set to work almost immediately.

Image: Henry and Eleanor.

One of Henry’s first acts was to remove the swarm of mercenaries that had been hired by Stephen during the anarchy. Many of these mercenaries had been invited over from Flanders. No doubt, Henry wished to be rid of them as they were a living and breathing reminder of the troubles that had gone before. The king made it clear, in no uncertain terms, to the mercenaries that they were to adhere to the departure date given to them or their lives could be in jeopardy. Unsurprisingly, they did as they were told and exited the country without delay. There were other reminders of the civil war too. Castles and other structures had popped up over the last twenty years. Henry demolished a number of them although kept some for strategic purposes.

Henry proactively ensured that law and justice was kept throughout the land. The king kept a close watch on his judges and other law enforcers to ensure they abstained from corruption. The church also benefitted as Henry made sure, when vacancies arose, they were awarded to honest members of the clergy. Under the watchful eye of the king and his chancellor Thomas Becket, as well as the nobility whom Henry had managed to unify, England began to enjoy, as one chronicler puts it, “a second springtime”.

In the early months of his reign, Henry toured the country, granting extensive numbers of charters. In January 1155, Henry was at Oxford where he oversaw a legal issue for a certain Abbot named Bernard. From there, he travelled northwards. Henry would gain a reputation as a king who not only travelled far and wide but moved at a phenomenal pace as well. You had to be on your toes if you were part of his royal entourage. Not only did Henry travel long distances at an incredible rate, he also gave his entourage very mixed information when it came to travel arrangements. For instance, he would say that he and his people were to set off first thing in the morning, only for the king to stay in bed until midday. Other occasions, he would state they were to set off later in the day only for him to change his mind and set off early, leaving everyone else scrambling to catch up. It may well be Henry took some enjoyment out of creating such chaos. One chronicler accuses Henry of telling his entourage, when they were travelling, that they’d be staying overnight in comfortable lodgings, only to change plans again and, in the words of that same chronicler, leave his people to stay in a hovel not fit for a pig. Henry definitely enjoyed watching the arguments that followed as people fought over who slept where. Henry was definitely a man with a sense of humour.

In February of 1155, Henry arrived at Nottingham. It’s possible that he travelled there to investigate the mysterious death of the Earl of Chester. The man who was suspected of playing a part in the Earl’s death had been residing at Nottingham. When he heard that the king was close at hand, the suspect fled. That same month, Eleanor gives birth to a son, who is named after his father. This boy would be known to history as the Young King. This name came about after he was crowned co-king alongside his father in 1170. However, this would prove to be a mere symbolic gesture on the part of Henry II and the Young King, alongside his younger brothers, would gradually become increasingly frustrated under what they considered their father’s rather suffocating hold over them.

Henry then gained possession of two castles which had been held by the Earl of Hereford who had previously been at odds with the crown. This would have been pleasing for the king as it demonstrated that he was getting very much to grips with what had been a lawless country during the reign of Stephen. It may only have been a relatively small gain but the symbolism would not have been lost on Henry.

Henry then turned his thoughts to the future. He wanted to ensure the nobility’s loyalty to his two sons, the infant William and the new born Henry. So, he held a council at Wallingford where oaths of loyalty were taken. Things appeared to be going well for the new king but matters would soon become more difficult for Henry. In May of 1155, a man by the name of Hugh De Mortimer goes into revolt against the king. The dispute drags on for a couple of months, which involves several sieges, until, at Bridgnorth, a peace is agreed.

Whilst the squabble with De Mortimer was going on, Henry received some bitter news. His oldest son William, just a toddler, had tragically died. In an age of high infant mortality, this was not exactly unexpected but a gut wrenching blow for the king. On a more coldly pragmatic note, William’s death left the king with one new born as his heir. To protect his dynasty, Henry would have to produce more sons to guard against the perils of childhood in the 12th century.

Empress Matilda was still playing a significant role on the political scene. She warned her son against the risks of a campaign he planned to make in Ireland, one of potential conquest. It would have been a seriously risky move for a new king and Henry duly continues his progress throughout England. Henry spends the Christmas of 1155 in London where he makes plans to travel to France to pay homage to Louis VII for his French possessions that had come to him through right of his marriage to Eleanor and from his inheritance of the lands previously held by his father. While he is gone, England’s administration is entrusted to Eleanor.

Eleanor would require help with running the country as, at the time of Henry’s departure for the continent, she was pregnant again. And in the summer of 1156, she gave birth to a daughter, named Matilda. Meanwhile, in France, the king was capturing territories that were rightfully his but whose citizens were refusing to acknowledge him as their ruler.

Henry enjoys Christmas at Bordeaux and, alongside his mother who appears to have joined him, he establishes an abbey at Cherburgh early in the New Year. Both Henry and Matilda also grant a charter to Silly Abbey in Argentan. In attendance of the confirmation of this charter is chancellor Becket. 

Despite their potential rivalry, Henry and Louis VII remain on good terms and Henry is granted possession of an abbey at Tours by the French king.

Over a year after his departure for France, Henry finally returns to England in April of 1157. Henry’s attentions are then turned northwards to Scotland and their king Malcolm IV. Malcolm relinquishes his claims to Newcastle and Carlisle. The Scots king agrees to meet Henry at Derbyshire and spends some time at the English court. Malcolm accompanies Henry to Chester where he pays the English king homage.

Wales proved to be a little more problematic for Henry but, after some initial rebellions, he managed to subdue the Welsh who then paid him homage. To further bolster security in Wales, Henry then significantly strengthened his castles there. 1157 had been a good year for Henry and, in September, it got even better as Eleanor gave birth to a boy, called Richard. This little baby would grow to be a force of nature and cause his father no end of problems but Henry, of course, was not to know this and the birth of Richard was a cause of great joy for the king and queen. The first three years of Henry's reign had been a success with England being given so much needed stability by this young, energetic king.

The Horrors of the Harrying Of The North

 

In 1087, William The Conqueror was on his deathbed. The king was ill at ease and perhaps even riddled with guilt. His mind was thinking back to the events of 1070 when William and his conquering Normans had massacred the population of Northern England. William had faced stiff opposition to his conquest of England, long after the victory at Hastings. He built castles all across the country and dealt brutally with those who revolted against him. Uprisings were more common in the north which William struggled to contain. This explains, though fails to justify, the Normans utterly shocking and repulsive actions of 1070.  Now, as William neared his end, he believed he was about to face judgement from God and fear began to take hold.

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Orderic Vitalis quotes William as uttering these words as he lay dying..."I attacked the English of the Northern Shires like a lion. I ordered their houses and corn, with all their belongings, to be burnt and large herds of cattle and beasts of burden to be destroyed wherever they were found. It was there I took revenge on masses of people by subjecting them to a cruel famine; and by doing so — alas!— I became the murderer of many thousands of that fine race".

Orderic himself wrote of the horrifying events....

"King William cut down many in his vengeance....destroyed the lairs of others and harried the land and burned homes to ashes. Nowhere else had William shown such cruelty. I have frequently praised William but for this act which condemned the innocent and the guilty alike to die violently or slowly by starvation, I cannot commend him.  I would rather lament the griefs and sufferings of the wretched people then make a vain attempt to flatter the perpetrator of such infamy."

Another description of the truly horrendous aftermath of the massacre was written by Simeon of Durham, another medieval chronicler..Simeon wrote..."So great a famine prevailed, that men were compelled by hunger to eat human flesh and also that of horses, dogs and cats and whatever custom abhors. Others sold themselves into slavery to preserve their wretched existence. It was horrible to behold corpses decaying in the street, in houses and in the roads, swarming with worms whilst they were consuming with an abominable stench, for no one was left to bury them."

Despite everything, however, the spirit of the English was not yet broken (and perhaps never was). On the Isle of Ely, William was defied by a small army led by the mysterious and legendary Hereward The Wake. Hereward in particular proved to be a thorn in the side of William for some years and more can be read about him on this blog, in a piece called simply Hereward The Wake. Hereward won the respect of William who called him a most remarkable knight. And that respect wasn’t only reserved for Hereward it seems. William, as mentioned above, called the English population “that fine race” despite them resisting his rule so stubbornly. Whilst William ultimately brought England under control, the English had put up one hell of a fight which, in 1070, had tragic consequences.

The Battle of the Standard 1138

 In 1138, an English army defeated an invading Scottish force at the battle of the Standard. The Scottish king at the time was David I. David was the brother of the now long dead Matilda of Scotland who had been the first wife and Queen of Henry I of England. Matilda was the mother of the Empress Matilda whom Henry I had designated as his heir to the throne of England before he died in 1135. However, Matilda's succession did not go uncontested and she was beaten to the crown by her cousin Stephen of Blois. Very quickly into King Stephen's reign however, trouble began to brew. One of the sources of that trouble was David I of Scotland. David had two motivations for invading Northern England. One, pressing the claims to the throne of England by his niece the Empress Matilda. And two, to capture territories in Northern England.

In 1137,  David made his first move against the usurping King Stephen by invading Northumberland. By January 1138, David moved deeper and deeper into English territory, causing devastation as he and his men marched on. Men, women and children were murdered in cold blood, towns and churches burnt to the ground. Children from high born families were led into slavery in scenes that were reminiscent of the Viking raids of centuries past. Although medieval chronicles were given to exaggerations at times, and sometimes massively so, it's safe to say the conduct of David and his Scottish army was particularly shocking.

King Stephen, who had problems elsewhere in his kingdom, marched northwards and arrived in Northumberland forcing David into a hasty retreat. David did not make a full retreat and instead set a trap, hoping to take the English king unawares. The plan didn't work as Stephen instead marched to Scotland, launching a revenge attack and causing much destruction to the Scottish. David was undeterred and he continued his brutal campaign. He then sent his nephew William to march further southwards, where William and his band of men raided Yorkshire, again killing innocent people regardless of sex or age, again taking young members of the nobility, mainly women, as slaves and where they looted a monastery in Craven.

Boosted by the success of William's raids further south, David continued on his violent campaign. With Stephen preoccupied with matters in the Southwest of England at this time, the English king was now reliant on his northern nobility to save the crown he had won, or stolen, less than 3 years earlier. The nobility quickly made preparations for battle although they did send a small group of men to negotiate with David, offering Northumberland to David's son Henry if the Scottish king left England immediately. The offer was rejected with contempt and battle now inevitable.

The two sides would meet NorthAllerton in Yorkshire and the Battle would be given the name of Standard from a mast that was hoisted upon a cart by the English army on which they hung a container holding the communion bread, hoping for diving inspiration. Also on the mast, the banners of Northern bishops were flown. The battle begun and the Scots quickly sustained heavy losses. And it wasn't long before many of the Scots decided to flee with David I among them. The battle had lasted little more than a few hours.

However, although the victory at the Battle of the Standard had been an emphatic one, and a victory that was received gratefully by the king of England, it was hardly a decisive success. David gathered his forces together again and forced Stephen to negotiate a peace settlement. David was allowed to keep Carlisle and Cumberland whilst his son Henry was given the earldoms of Northumberland and Huntingdon. The result of these negotiations rather sums up what would be a pathetic reign for King Stephen. He had essentially been bullied by the Scottish king. And he had only averted complete disaster because of the military capabilities of powerful northern noblemen. If the Battle of the Standard had been lost, then Stephen's kingdom may have been lost. But his problems weren't over yet. He still had Empress Matilda to deal with yet.

A History Of The Life And Reign of Edward I part 3: Enemies on All Sides

 In the early 1290s, Edward began to turn his attention towards Scotland where he hoped to establish overlordship over England's northern neighbours. In 1292, John Balliol was declared king of Scotland with Edward's approval. John then paid homage to Edward who, satisfied with how the business had been concluded, returned to England. In 1293, tensions rose between Edward and King Philip iV of France. First of all, there was a quarrel in the English channel between French and English sailors. The French appeared to be a disruptive presence as English traders attempted to make crossings over to the continent to conduct their business affairs. Tempers boiled over and eventually fighting broke out. Even though they were heavily outnumbered the small number of English ships inflicted severe damage on the French vessels.

That relatively minor incident was overshadowed in 1294 when the English and French kings became embroiled in a dispute. In what was intended to be a symbolic gesture after the clashes in the channel, Edward surrendered his lands in Gascony to the French crown. In return, Philip IV swore to return the possessions to Edward after a period of 40 days. Philip had made that vow in a solemn ceremony in front of the French nobility. Tentative negotiations were then held to discuss a potential marriage between Philip's sister, Blanche, and Edward, now a widower. However, the marriage never came to pass. Blanche refused to marry Edward. This refusal came about after arrangements had been made for Edward to come to Amiens to meet Philip and for the wedding to take place. Edward, by now, would have suspected some skulduggery on the part of the French king who still held Gascony. and so he refused to attend the meeting at Amiens. Feigning outrage at Edward's absence, Philip publicly declared the English king to be an enemy of France and of all the French people. Edward returned to England where he held parliament where it was agreed that he would now make preparations for war against the French. Likewise, Philip began to strengthen his navy and spent much time and money on building new warships.

Edward's attentions from the conflict with France was temporarily diverted to Wales, which had given him so much trouble in the past, and briefly threatened to go into open revolt again. However, after taking Anglesey, Edward was able to calm the situation and he was in a forgiving mood and treated those responsible with leniency. Shortly after this, an English fleet sailed for Normandy and wreaks havoc along the Norman coastline. In response, a French force caused significant damage along the English south coast before they were eventually driven back. On 27th November, Edward held a meeting, asking for finances for the now seemingly inevitable war with France from his nobility and clergy. However, Edward met with some strong reluctance, particularly on the part of the Clergy who perhaps felt the war could be avoided. Nonetheless, Edward was eventually granted the required money.

But Edward could not afford to be too occupied with the French. In the North, the Scottish were threatening rebellion. Edward wrote to John Balliol asking him to send men to fight in Edward's army that would invade France. But it might be said that Edward was not quite reading the room. Balliol was a king in name only and the Scots knew this all too well. It was Edward who was the true power behind the Scottish throne. Edward's demands were therefore given short shrift by the Scots who wrote back telling the English king, in no uncertain terms, that they were under no obligation to heed his calls for support. On top of this, the Scots then signed a treaty with the French that would become known as the Auld Alliance. With his enemies uniting against him, Edward was now in a potentially tricky situation.

Byzantine Emperors: Justinian II "The Slit Nosed" part one: His First Reign 685-695

 

Justinian II was the son of Emperor Constantine IV and succeeded to the Imperial throne on his father's death in 685. Early in Justinian's reign, Arab envoys were sent to him by their ruler Abd Al Malik who sought peace with the Byzantines. As part of the agreement, Justinian put a halt to attacks on Lebanon. In return, Al Malik offered Justinian payment as well as giving him horses and slaves. Justinian was only 16 or 17 when he became Emperor and he could, at times, be prone to youthful rashness and he was accused of acting before taking the advice of perhaps more experienced men around him.

In a campaign of 688 to 689, Justinian conquered the Slavs, albeit some came over to the Byzantines side without resistance, and resettled those captured in Anatolia where they would provide a significant boost to Justinian's army. Selecting from the Slavic men available, Justinian picked 30,000 men for a "special army". His confidence boosted by this, Justinian then threatened to renew aggression against the Arabs, thereby revoking the peace that had been agreed only a few years earlier..

Having been accused of reneging on the peace agreement, the Arabs came to the Emperor and attempted to persuade him that it had not been their intention to do so but Justinian was having none of it. By this point, he had made up his mind and was ready for battle. In the conflict, Justinian appeared to be gaining the upper hand. That was until the Arabs bribed the general of Justinian's new Slavic army and he deserted the Byzantines along with 1000s of his men. Furious at this dramatic turn of events, Justinian unleashed his wrath on the remaining Slavs and massacred not only the fighting men but their wives and children also.

In 695, Justinian made a Eunuch named Stephen The Persian one of his advisers. This would appear to have been not an overly popular decision as Stephen was accused of being bloodthirsty and cruel. Among his crimes,  Stephen is said to have had innocent men stoned to death and is even said to have been incredibly vicious to the Emperor's mother Anastasia and he had her whipped brutally. Of course, this was done whilst Justinian was away from Constantinople. Stephen wasn't Justinian's only unpopular appointment. Another, that of a man named Theodotos who was placed in charge of the Public finances, would prove to be equally controversial. Heavy-handed enforcement of taxation in Constantinople led to the confiscation of property from wealthy and influential people in the city and even imprisonment and executions. It's fair to say that the driving force behind this approach was pure greed on the emperor's part. As a direct result, Justinian's reputation began to suitably suffer.

It was hardly surprising then that Justinian's deposition was not far away. Being a Roman Emperor in either East or the West could be a very dangerous game, especially if you played fast and loose which is exactly what Justinian had done. His deposition was brought about by one of his generals, Leontius, who became Emperor in his stead. Leontius had spent several years in prison and on his release, he was urged to take the imperial throne. The coup was successful and Justinian was overthrown. However, he made one mistake. Instead of dispatching Justinian, i.e executing him, Leontius merely had the now former emperor mutilated. Justinian's tongue was cut and his nose slit, earning him his rather unpleasant nickname. This, it was assumed, would render Justinian unfit to rule again and he was sent off into exile. As for Stephen The Persian and Theodotos, they too had a brutal punishment lying in store for them; they were burned alive. So Leontius was now emperor but this was not the end of Justinian and he would return...

The Life And Reign Of Edward I part 2: The Years 1274-1290

 

With Edward having finally been crowned king of England nearly 2 years after the death of Henry III, it was time for the 35 year old to settle down to the business of kingship. Around Easter of 1275, Edward presided over his first parliament in which he passed new laws and changed old laws that had proved ineffective. Unsurprisingly, given the state of England's finances during the reign of Henry III and the expenses Edward had accrued during the 9th Crusade, the new king found himself short of money and so, in October of 1275, Edward turned to Parliament for financial assistance. During that same Parliament, Edward passed a law clamping down on Jewish moneylenders who had been profiting from their activities, much to the annoyance of Christians who struggled to pay the money back due to high interest rates. This would not be the last Anti-Jewish move of Edward's reign.

In 1277, Edward sent an army to the Welsh marches to deal with the rebellious Welsh Prince Llywelyn Ap Gruffudd. Edward's campaign proved to be successful. In order to stamp his authority over Wales, Edward began an extensive castle building programme, enlisting the help of Master James of St George, an expert architect. James first helped to oversee the building of castles at Flint and Rhuddlan before, in the 1280s, he constructed castles at Conwy, Harlech and Caernarfon, the latter of which was the birthplace of Edward's son and successor, the future Edward II, in 1284. The success of the campaign seemed to be confirmed when Llywelyn accompanied Edward on his return to London where the Welsh Prince paid homage to the English. The following year, Edward hears rumours that Llywelyn has gone into revolt again but these rumours proved to be false and homage was once again paid to the king by the Welsh. Llywelyn would then marry Eleanor, daughter of Simon De Montfort, with Edward's approval. A few months later, Edward sailed to France to lay claim to Ponthieu. The trip goes according to plan.

Edward enjoyed a period of stability but an old problem once again reared it's head in 1282. That problem was Llywelyn, his brother Dafydd and the Welsh who were once again up in arms and attempting to throw off the suffocating grip of English oppression. This time the trouble was even more serious than it had been previously with the Welsh capturing the castles at Flint and Rhuddlan and causing untold damage elsewhere. At Harwarden, there was terrible indiscriminate slaughter as not only soldiers but innocent men, women and children were caught up in the violence. Edward, perhaps having become a touch complacent, is deeply shocked when he hears the news. The king managed to subdue parts of Wales but Llywelyn senses an opportunity and attempted to make further gains but is killed in battle. His brother Dafydd is captured the following year and he suffers a truly terrible fate. Dafydd becomes the first person, at least on record, to be hung, drawn and quartered. The brutality of this execution must have caused some considerable shock, even in an age where violence was not exactly unheard of. Whilst Edward's castles sent a message that he intended to keep firm control of Wales and its people, the example Edward had made out of Dafydd was a pretty clear indicator to the enemies of the English king what they could expect if they betrayed his trust one too many times.

As mentioned previously, Edward's son and heir, Edward ii, was born at Caernarfon Castle in 1284. Edward's queen, Eleanor of Castile, had been a loyal companion to the king, remaining by his side during his Welsh campaigns, as evidenced by the place of birth of Edward's successor. Edward and Eleanor were a couple who clearly thought a lot of each other and stories are told of the king playing tricks on Eleanor's ladies in waiting so that he could see his wife. In turn, Eleanor would send musicians to Edward to entertain him during times of melancholy. When Eleanor died in 1290, Edward was deeply upset and erected the Eleanor Crosses in her memory. However, Eleanor was not universally popular. Some people accused her of benefiting from the unpopular Jewish moneylenders which may explain Edward's laws passed against the moneylenders as he sought to take some of the heat off his queen. As we've seen examples of already, Edward could be a brutal man and some accused Eleanor of actively encouraging these traits in her husband which is wholly unfair. 

Shortly before Eleanor died, Edward passed the Edict of Expulsion which demanded that all Jews living in England leave the country before 1st November 1290 in one of the most shameful acts of Edward's reign. From the king's point of view, it would have made perfect sense. On the one hand, he could dress it up as though he was protecting the interests of Christians when in reality it was a cynical move to seize Jewish goods and property. Debts that were owed to Jews conveniently transferred to the Crown. Even more tragically, as they heeded the edict, many Jews fell victim to Piracy in the English channel as they lost both the property they had been able to take with them and, in many cases, their lives as well. Jews who remained in England were threatened with execution although some may have converted. Earlier in the reign, Jews had been scapegoated for a crisis which saw English coins being worthless by excessive clipping. As a result, scores of Jews were executed. Whilst Edward is undoubtedly a fine king, overlooking his clearly antisemitic nature would be absolute folly.

Moving into the 1290s, Edward's attention began to move towards Scotland. In fact, it had been whilst travelling northwards to Scotland that Queen Eleanor had died. The English king, having subdued the Welsh, was now fully determined to establish his overlordship of England's neighbours to the North. These campaigns would bring out about their own challenges as two of Scotland's greatest National heroes, William Wallace and Robert Bruce, emerged to defy not only Edward I but also Edward II. The 1290s would also see a rivalry with the French king Philip emerge. More on that in part 3.

The Life And Reign Of Edward I part one: The Making of a Warrior King

 

Edward I was born in June 1239 at the Palace of Westminster. His parents were King Henry III and his queen, Eleanor of Provence. Henry's reign was a long one, too long some might say. Becoming king on the death of his own father, King John, in 1216, Henry would rule for 56 years until his own death in 1272. Just 9 years old when he came to the throne, Henry's crown was at risk of being snatched away from him. At the time of his succession, England had a foreign invader in its midst. This was Prince Louis of France who had been invited to come and take the crown off the hapless King John by the fed up English nobility who had had just about enough of John's incompetent rule. However, with John now dead and a young, innocent boy on the throne, some of the tension eased although Louis didn't give up his claims until he suffered defeat at the Second Battle of Lincoln in 1217 at the hands of the aged but still brilliant knight, William Marshal. Louis, up until that point, was still evidently confident of success as he wasn't even present at Lincoln at the time of his forces' defeat. Louis had divided his army into two with one force marching on Lincoln and Louis leading the other half to besiege Dover. When he heard of the disaster at Lincoln, momentum in Louis' campaign was completely lost and he would have to content himself with a short reign as king of France, when he ruled as Louis VIII from 1223-1226.

Although his crown had been saved, this was hardly the best of starts for a new king. And, unfortunately, Henry inherited some of his father's incompetence. He was particularly lax with finances. One of the more absurd ideas of his reign was to try and put his son, Edmund Crouchback, younger brother of Edward, on the throne of Sicily in the mid 1250s. This idea had been suggested to Henry by the Pope. Eventually, after Pope Innocent IV had died, his successor Alexander IV, demanded Henry pay a huge some of money to cover Papal expenses as the bid to take the Sicilian crown from the hands of Manfred, son of the now dead Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, gradually became more and more costly. Henry's situation was made all the more dire by the fact that before the Sicilian saga had come to pass, he was already in trouble financially. He'd made earlier promises to go on Crusade and had borrowed huge sums of money. However, in Gascony, trouble had kicked off over the heavy handed rule of Simon De Montfort and Henry had been forced to waste the money he had raised for Crusade on quieting Gascony.

As the 1250s became increasingly troubled for Henry III, his son and successor Edward was beginning to grow into a young man. As a child, Edward had a few close shaves. He had several bouts of illness which caused some considerable concern. There was also an interesting story where Edward, by pure luck, escaped being crushed by a huge stone. Edward had been playing Chess with one of his household knights when, for no reason other than perhaps boyish restlessness, Edward stood up and walked out of the room. Within seconds, the stone came crashing down from the roof which apparently would have been enough to kill an adult, never mind a young boy. According to one chronicler, Edward's apparent habit of enjoying good fortune was attributed at the time to him having "the protection of the Lord of Heaven." 

Despite Edward suffering poor health at times in his childhood, he still developed into a famously intimidating figure. He would grow to be 6 foot 2 with powerful legs well suited for riding horses and arms perfect for wielding swords in a most powerful fashion. Edward did have his imperfections however. His left eyelid drooped slightly, something he had inherited from Henry and he spoke with a lisp although he remained a compelling speaker.

In the 1260s, Henry III's problems were growing. Tensions had spilled over between the king and his barons, who were led in their opposition by Simon De Montfort. Aside from his terrible financial situation, Henry had also caused widespread dismay by allowing foreign relatives of both himself and his queen Eleanor to come into England and prosper. Eventually, the barons would defeat a royalist army at the battle of Lewes in 1264 which effectively gave De Montfort control over England for over a year. Edward, a prince now in his mid 20s, had been present at Lewes, fighting on behalf of his father. Early in the battle, Edward caused the barons' army significant damage but Edward then allowed a personal agenda to take over his decision army. Part of the Barons' army was made of men from London with whom Edward had a bone to pick with. Whilst sailing up the River Thames, Edward's mother Eleanor, deeply unpopular with the people of London, was pelted with rocks, vegetables, garbage and basically anything the Londoners' could get their hands on. At one point, the barrage was so serious, the queen came to fear for her life. Remembering that at Lewes, Edward, on seeing the Londoners fleeing from the battle, rashly went in pursuit of them, leaving his father badly exposed. When Edward returned to the field, the battle was lost. In negotiations that followed, in which the king didn't have a leg to stand on, his heir Edward was handed over as hostage to De Montfort.

Edward however was not going to sit quietly and accept his fate as hostage to De Montfort. As his time in captivity wore on, Edward became familiar with his captors, even friendly to a point where they would go out riding together and it was on one of these trips out, that Edward made his daring escape. He managed to manipulate the situation where he was allowed to ride the quickest horse. Seizing the moment, Edward rode off into the distance and returned to his father's side in order to reestablish royal authority over England. This was largely brought about when Edward engaged De Montfort's men at the Battle of Evesham and it was here the rebel Earl of Leicester met his end as his force was absolutely routed. De Montfort's body was hacked to pieces.

With a semblance of calm now restored, Prince Edward vowed to go on Crusade and, unlike Henry, he actually did so. This Crusade would be led by Louis IX of France but the French king would die at Tunis in North Africa after an outbreak of disease. Edward continued the Crusade and headed for the Holy Land where very little was accomplished by the Crusaders. In fact, English history could have been very different indeed because of the Crusade if Edward had not survived an assassination attempt on his life. Whilst camped at Acre, an assassin managed to enter Edward's tent and attacked him with a poisoned dagger. Edward's considerable strength aided him as he fought off the would-be killer but sustained serious injuries. His wife Eleanor had accompanied Edward on the Crusade and was deeply upset by the incident. Edward, as we know, survived but would be left feeling the effects of the attack for some considerable time. Although Edward had been eager for the Crusade to continue, it was clear that there was very little point and Edward's injury made that all the more obvious. Edward finally gave in to the advice of others and began the long journey home.

And a long journey it would be. Edward arrived in Sicily in September 1272 where he was greeted by the king of Sicily. Whilst there, Edward was brought news of the death of his father Henry III. He was now king Edward I of England. It was a bittersweet moment for him as he genuinely grieved the passing of his father. The news however did NOT hasten Edward's journey home. It would seem a fair bet he was still struggling from his Crusading injury. Edward then made a slow progress through Italy where he was greeted warmly far and wide, from city to city. Moving onwards, at Burgundy, Edward was challenged to take part in a tournament which he accepted, evidently feeling better. Edward handled himself more than capably and caused some upset when he through a Count off his horse although, in Edward's defence, the Count had been trying to do the same to Edward but found the new English king to be hard to dislodge from his saddle.

Edward then met the French king Philip III to whom he paid homage for his lands in France. Edward then travelled to Gascony where he put down some further disturbances in the region. Edward FINALLY returned to England in 1274 and in August of that year, he and his queen Eleanor, who had been a loyal companion in his most difficult moments during and after the Crusade, were crowned. In the words of one Chronicler, Edward and Eleanor shone in radiance and glory. Joy at the arrival home of the new king was felt all across England. However, for the country's enemies, perhaps a shudder was felt. Edward would prove to be a truly remarkable king.