Henry I: An Assessment

 Henry I, a son of William The Conqueror, ruled England from 1100 to 1135. He ruled England for a substantial period of time, 35 years in the early 12th century, but what type of king was he? Well, unsurprisingly for a son of William The Conqueror, he was ruthless. Having become well established on the English throne, he would go on to seize control of the Duchy of Normandy at the expense of his eldest brother, Robert Curthose, whom he defeated at the Battle of Tinchebray in 1106. Robert thus became Henry’s prisoner for the remainder of his long life, living into his 80s and dying only the year before Henry himself. Henry used all his political nous to ensure that Robert’s reputation was muddied by protesting his own innocence to the pope. Paschal II was initially displeased with Henry’s actions but was easily won over by Henry’s persuasions that Robert had ruled over Normandy in the fashion of a tyrant.

Having taken Normandy, Henry would still have a fight on his hands to retain hold of the Duchy, which he intended to pass to his son and heir William Aetheling, in the face of the rival claims of Robert’s son, William Clito, who was supported by the French king, Louis The Fat. Henry showed his military acumen when he defeated his rivals at Bremule in 1119. Henry’s plans, however, were drastically altered when William Aetheling drowned the following year which altered not only the future of England but Normandy also. After recovering somewhat from the shock of the death of his one legitimate son, of which he was devastated, Henry would have to think on his feet. More on that in a moment.

Henry seizing power in Normandy was questionable as was his taking the crown in England. His and Robert’s brother, William II, was the third born son of William The Conqueror. Robert was the eldest, the second, Richard, died in a hunting accident in 1070 with Henry being the youngest. On becoming king of England in 1066, William The Conqueror retained control of Normandy and, towards the end of his life, he now had to think of how both England and Normandy would be ruled. He decided Robert, who had rebelled seriously against his father, should take Normandy whilst England would go to William. Henry would have to make do with a financial payment. Robert wasn’t overly happy with this and attempted to oust William II as king but failed. Henry, meanwhile, lurked in the background. His prospects for power looked fairly bleak for a time but his opportunity came in 1100. Robert was away on Crusade and William II was mysteriously killed, like Richard, whilst hunting in the New Forest. Henry showed his ruthlessness by having himself crowned 3 days after William’s death before anyone could stop him. Was he behind the “accident”? The evidence is inconclusive but, circumstantially at least, it looks suspicious. Henry knew he would have Robert to deal with when he returned but that was inconsequential. He had, after all, gone from a powerless younger son to having the opportunity, as time would show, to take his father’s entire inheritance.

From what we’ve discussed so far, Henry looks like the archetypal medieval king. Quick thinking, power hungry and ambitious. And that he was. But he was also a man with his fair share of shortcomings. Two of those shortcomings were a common theme with medieval kings of England. Food and women. In 1135, Henry died from a fever brought on, famously, by him eating an excessive amount of lampreys, a type of eel. His doctors had specifically warned him not to do so but the advice seems to have fallen on deaf ears.

At the time of his death, Henry may have felt he had gone some way of dealing with the dilemma of the succession that had been brought on by the death of William Aetheling. Henry had only produced two children with his queen, the other being a girl, named Matilda. But he had also produced about 24 illegitimate children with mistresses. A shocking number which suggests, although this is speculation, that Henry perhaps could have been more attentive to the thought of the succession. With both his one male heir and queen dead, Henry now had a problem he had to solve. He needed another son but, despite marrying a young woman in order to produce one, another son was not forthcoming.

Henry considered making one of his illegitimate sons his heir but instead settled on his daughter, Matilda, who had been married to the Holy Roman Emperor earning her the title “Empress”. Henry knew that this was a risk as female rule was still a fairly alien concept in 12th century England and he knew any plans for a long dynasty hung in the balance. The king made his barons swear loyalty to Matilda three times, meaning he certainly didn’t trust them to accept her as their new monarch when he died.

Although it is impossible to say for certain, I think Henry’s behaviour contributed to the troubles that followed his death. Had he avoided the temptation of lampreys, he may have lived a little longer, although he was already a good age in medieval terms, and perhaps made a stronger case for Matilda’s succession. Matilda already had two sons with a third yet to come. If Henry had lived perhaps a few years more, he could point out to his nobles the strapping young boys who were the real future of the English crown. As it was, one of them would become king in 1154 as Henry II. When Henry I died, the future Henry II was only a toddler and still had to survive the perils of infancy in the Middle Ages and so too much stock couldn’t be placed on him at that time. However, once he got to the age of 6 or 7, he would have begun to look like a potential future king. Henry I’s death was avoidable. Although the death of William Aetheling was a severe blow, it didn’t need to be an irreparable one as I’ve evidenced. Of course, Henry I may have died of some other ailment if the lampreys didn’t get him so this is all conjecture.

In purely kingship terms, Henry was undoubtedly a very strong ruler. He passed a charter of liberties which would be cited by the barons who forced Magna Carta under the nose of King John. Offenders in Henry’s realm could expect heavy punishment such as mutilation. Henry was particularly strict on coin clipping. As it was, England was a country that enjoyed law and order during Henry’s time and he could concentrate on fighting his enemies across the channel. Henry I was very much a king who had his flaws but, likewise, he also had qualities that could have seen him rank among the very best of medieval kings. Unfortunately it was the Anarchy that followed his reign, of which Henry contributed too, that has tarnished his legacy somewhat.

Edward The Elder

 Most people have heard of Alfred The Great and Alfred’s grandson, Aethelstan, was the famous victor at Brunanburh, one of the most consequential battles in English history. However, sandwiched in between the reigns of these two kings was a man who has often been overlooked, a king of great capability whose own rule would help lay the foundations for the successes of the reigns of his sons, Aethelstan, Edmund I and Eadred. This king is known to history as Edward The Elder, the son and successor of Alfred The Great.

Edward’s father loved learning and promoted education far and wide with the belief that an educated population, and not just the rich, would stand the country in good stead. Accordingly, Alfred ensured that his children, both sons and daughters, were taught both well and extensively. Alfred’s chronicler, Asser, who knew the king personally, describes the education of Edward and his siblings. Of the education of Aethelweard, Edward’s youngest sibling, Asser wrote “Æthelward, the youngest, by the divine counsel and by the admirable foresight of the king, was entrusted to the schools of literary training, where, with the children of almost all the nobility of the country, and many also who were not noble, he was under the diligent care of the teachers. Books in both languages, namely, Latin and Saxon, were diligently read in the school. They also learned to write; so that before they were of an age to practise human arts, namely, hunting and other pursuits which befit noblemen, they became studious and clever in the liberal arts.”

Edward was not as fond of learning as his father but the education that Alfred was providing for Edward was certainly standing him in good stead. Edward was described as being humble, affable and gentle towards all whilst remaining fully obedient to his father, not always the case in those days. Asser goes on to write this of Edward and his siblings

” Nor, among the other pursuits which appertain to this life and are fit for noble youths, are they suffered to pass their time idly and unprofitably without liberal training; for they have carefully learned the Psalms and Saxon books, especially Saxon poems, and are in the habit of making frequent use of books.”

But in the age of the Viking wars, there would be much more to do for Edward than simply reading books. Alfred had fought, with considerable success, to repel Viking onslaughts but the king knew he couldn’t go on forever. Dogged throughout his adult life by Crohn’s disease, Alfred had to ensure that Edward was prepared for the challenges that would come for him when it was his turn to be king. This meant trusting Edward to not only join him on his campaigns but also help to lead them. By the early 890s, Edward was in his mid to late teens and at the Battle of Farnham, he demonstrated that, already, he was prepared for kingship.

The Vikings had launched yet another campaign of raiding and plundering and were returning to Essex with the spoils they had seized when they were intercepted by one half of the Wessex royal army. Alfred had split his forces into two and it was the half led by Edward who intercepted the raiders at Farnham. Edward and his men charged at the enemy and drove them into flight, retaking the riches that had been stolen. Edward was not content with that and went in pursuit of the Vikings but soon found his army dwindling in numbers as many of the men had served their time. For the young Edward, this would have been frustrating but his bravery and obvious leadership skills must surely have pleased his father.

In around 894, Edward’s wife, Ecgwynn, gave birth to a son. He was named Aethelstan and would grow to be another extraordinary king. Shortly before his death in 899, Alfred presented his little grandson with a new sword and belt, remarking how he recognised greatness in the boy. These may sound like the words of a doting grandfather but I think they are less of a reflection of what Alfred saw in Aethelstan’s potential and, instead, it was more a commentary of Alfred’s faith in Aethelstan’s father. Alfred knew as well as anyone that life in this age could be fleeting and there was no guarantee that Aethelstan would ever become king but Alfred knew that, in Edward, the young boy had the perfect role model. Edward would be a brilliant king, brave, energetic, daring and a brilliant administrator. The kingdom that Edward would leave for Aethelstan on his own death in 924 would be far more extensive than the one he inherited from Alfred. Alfred’s greatest legacy was how he had reared his children, in particular Edward and Aethelflaed, the girl who had married the ruler of Mercia and who would do so much to help the House of Wessex unite what we now call England. After 28 long years of reigning, filled with ill health and war, Alfred The Great died. Although there was still much to be done for Edward and his successors, Alfred was surely at peace with himself when he died. However, a figure from Alfred’s past would cause Edward problems in the early years of his reign.

This came in the shape of his cousin, Aethelwold. Aethelwold was the son of Aethelred I who was Alfred’s brother. Aethelred died in 871 when Aethelwold and his own sibling were very small children. In this age of Viking raids, the common sense approach was taken that it simply would not do to have a little boy as king. In the centuries to come, young children and even babies would become monarchs and often this led to nothing but trouble. The situation demanded that a fully grown man take the crown. Alfred, who’d learnt much from campaigning alongside Aethelred, was in his 20s and obviously a much more suitable candidate to be king. But, 3 decades on, Aethelwold was now a fully grown man. It is a question to ponder whether Alfred foresaw this situation arising. Either way, the real problem that Edward had was that Aethelwold’s claim was perfectly legitimate. His father had been higher up the succession then Alfred therefore that made Aethelwold’s claim technically a stronger one then Edward’s.

However, the line of succession was nothing like as rigid as it would become after the Norman Conquest and Edward would keep hold of the throne. And it was a good job he did too. Aethelwold, during his revolt to try and oust Edward, didn’t exactly show the best judgement. First, he kidnapped a woman who had sworn to become a nun and effectively held her hostage before turning to the Vikings for support as he struggled to gain support from other quarters. Aethelwold’s revolt was clearly a dangerous one for Edward but Aethelwold was killed in battle in 902.

With his cousin out of the way, Edward could concentrate on other matters.

Throughout his reign, Edward would show he could use both diplomatic and military methods to secure peace for his kingdom. In 906, Edward made peace with the Vikings which the ASC describes as being done through necessity which would suggest there had been a definite increase in harassment of the Anglo Saxon kingdoms at that time and it was no surprise that the peace didn’t last. Edward sent a combined army of men from Wessex and Mercia northwards and battered the Vikings at Tettenhall, causing the invaders significant damage, killing a number of their leaders. It was a seismic victory and helped subdue the enemies of the north.

Not long after this battle, Edward’s brother in law, Aethelred of Mercia died. Edward’s son, Aethelstan, had been sent to the court of Aethelred and Aethelflaed where they kept a close eye on his upbringing and evidently done a good job. Aethelred’s passing meant that his remarkable wife, Aethelflaed, Edward’s sister, now became “the Lady of the Mercians” and this remarkable woman would play a huge role in the coming years until her own death in 918. Following Aethelred’s passing, Edward took under his control London, which had been recaptured from the Vikings and given to Aethelred by Alfred, and Oxford. In the coming months and years, Edward built defensive strongholds across the south including at Hertford and Witham in 912. In 915, he strengthened Buckinghamshire and, in the following year, Maldon. William of Malmesbury says this of Edward’s work;” He devised a mode of frustrating the incursions of the Danes, for he repaired many ancient cities, or built new ones, in places calculated for his purpose and filled them with a military force to protect its inhabitants and repel the enemy. Nor was his design unsuccessful.” Building and repairing defensive fortifications may look like a common sense step to take in days such as these, and indeed it was, but everything Edward done was meticulous in its planning

All the while, Edward’s sister proved to be no less tireless in protecting her people. Aethelflaed built forts at Tamworth, Warwick and Stafford. In 916, Aethelflaed’s army stormed into Wales, destroying a castle there and taking hostage the wife of a Welsh king. She captured towns and cities across the Midlands including Derby and Leicester. Some of this had been accomplished by Aethelflaed’s guile, others through more forceful measures. Aethelflaed died in 918. On his sister’s passing, Edward rode to Tamworth where loyalty was sworn to him immediately and the Welsh kings also came into line. With Aethelflaed’s death, Edward had become considerably more powerful as Mercia came under his control but he would surely have recognised the brilliance of his sister and must surely have been sorrowful at her death.

Over the next two years, Edward’s eyes remained firmly fixated on the north. In 919, he positioned himself in Manchester and the following he was in the Peak District, building forts as he went. In 920, Edward’s position as the dominant man in the British Isles was confirmed as King Constantine II of Scotland and the men of Northumbria, English and Dane alike, all paid homage to him. As Aethelstan would find out and put right, this was not guaranteed to last but Edward had certainly exceeded the power of his father and it was becoming clear that he would not leave merely the throne of Wessex for his son but, in reality, the kingdom of England.

Edward died in 924. What is telling of the nature of Edward is the fact he died only a few days after subduing a rebellion at Chester. This was testament to the will of the man. Boundless energy, relentless against his enemies and a fierce determination to protect his subjects. He, with the help of Aethelflaed, expanded his power beyond measure and his son would follow in his footsteps. Edward had the good fortune to be born into one of the most brilliant families in English history and, my goodness, did he live up to and enhance that family’s reputation. It was during his reign that England began to emerge as a fledgling nation. Of course, there was still work to be done but Edward’s sons, Aethelstan, Edmund and Eadred were all very capable successors.

There is only one final point to mull over. Why has this extraordinary man been so overlooked? If you mention the name Edward The Elder to almost anyone ,the chances are, all you’ll get is a blank stare gazing back at you. Really, this is a travesty. There is a case to be made that Edward is the greatest king in English history. And, yes, he is an ENGLISH king. In fact, he is, essentially, the founder of the English monarchy.

Aethelflaed: Lady of the Mercians

Daughter of Alfred The Great, sister of Edward The Elder, aunt of Aethelstan, Aethelflaed, Lady of Mercians, was associated, by blood, with the 3 greatest kings in English history. However, Aethelflaed was not defined by the men she happened to be related to. Her contributions to the uniting of England were truly immense. Today, in search of female trailblazers, most historians are drawn towards the brilliant Tudor queen, Elizabeth I. However, without Aethelflaed’s tireless efforts 700 years earlier, the magnificence of Elizabeth’s reign, and of other English monarchs, may have taken on an altogether different nature. Here, we take a closer look at the life of Aetheflaed.

There is uncertainty over the date of Aethelflaed’s birth but it is most likely to have been in 870, shortly before her father, Alfred, became king of Wessex. And her birth place is equally mysterious with one historian suggesting Chippenham although that is purely speculation. Aethelflaed’s mother was Ealhswith who was married to Alfred for over 30 years, having married him in 868 and remaining his wife until Alfred’s death in 899. Ealhswith’s father was Aethelred Mucel, a Mercian nobleman. Aethelflaed’s ties with Mercia grew even stronger when she married the Lord of the Mercians, another Aethelred. Aethelflaed’s childhood came as her father fought valiantly against the Vikings although he did not forget the importance of education for his children. It has been suggested that young Aethelflaed was sent to the court of her aunt, Aethelswith, who was the wife of King Burgred of Mercia, for her upbringing although the evidence for that is flimsy.

The precise date of Aethelflaed’s marriage to Aethelfred again is unknown. She was recorded as being the wife of the Mercian ruler in a charter of 887 so it seems likely that she was married to Aethelred no earlier than 885. With him, Aetheflaed would remain married for around a quarter of a century until Aethelred’s death in 911, producing one child together, a daughter. Asser, the contemporary biographer of Alfred The Great, makes reference to two Welsh princes submitting to Alfred in order to escape, in the words of Asser, “the tyranny” of Aethelred. But, during her marriage to Aethelred, Aethelflaed must have grown in stature. If she hadn’t, then that would make her accomplishments as sole ruler as “Lady of the Mercians” even more remarkable. Whilst there is not exactly an abundance of evidence for Aethelred and Aethelflaed’s marriage, the latter’s name did appear frequently in charters and the royal couple strengthened the defences of Worcester somewhere towards the end of the 800s. Whilst Aethelred has had his fair share of criticism over the centuries, it is clear that he and Aethelflaed provided Mercia with a degree of stability, certainly when stood in contrast with other regions, not just in England, but across the channel also. However, when Aethelred died, Aethelflaed became more ambitious.Simply repelling the Vikings was no longer good enough. Areas that had been conquered by the invaders must be retaken.

Aethelflaed’s father died in 899. For more than 2 decades, Alfred The Great had been plagued by the debilitating Crohn’s disease but still that didn’t stop from pressing on with his duties. Asser praises him as such;”And what of the cities and towns to be rebuilt and of others to be constructed when there were previously none….and what of the royal halls and chambers marvellously constructed of stone and wood at his command? And what of the royal residences of masonry, moved from their old position and splendidly reconstructed at more appropriate places by his royal command?” Alfred’s brilliant went went beyond construction. Militarily, he had learned lessons from the reign of his brother, another Aethelred, and proved to be a magnificent commander, defeating the Vikings at Edington in 878, retaking London which he granted to Aethelred and Aethelflaed and even enjoyed naval success over the invaders as well. But perhaps his greatest legacy was the way he had prepared his children for life in the Viking age. Aethelflaed, as Aethelred’s consort, was already proving herself and her brother, Edward The Elder, would be a magnificent successor to Alfred The Great.

In 909, a combined force of men from Wessex and Aethelflaed and Aethelred’s Mercians defeated the Vikings at Tettenhall but ,the year before Aethelred died, in 910, a Viking army swept into Mercia and raided in their devastating fashion. When Aethelflaed became sole ruler of Mercia, she would have been well aware of the courage that she would need in times as harsh as these. As she would prove, she had that in abundance. Shortly after the victory at Tettenhall, the Anglo Saxon Chronicles states that Aethelflaed built the stronghold of “Bremesbyrig” which appears to have either have been in Gloucestershire or Herefordshire. Regardless of location, it was a clear indication of Aethelflaed’s authority.

In 912, Aethelflaed built strongholds at a site that the Anglo Saxon Chronicles calls “Scergeat” a site that remains unidentified before building another at Bridgenorth in Shropshire. She continued in 913 with more building work at Tamworth and Stafford with Warwick’s defences strengthened in 914. That year, a Mercian force repulsed a Viking army that had crossed the channel from Brittany. In 917, Aethelflaed captured Derby which one historian describes as being “Aethelflaed’s greatest triumph”, That success came at a personal price for Aethelflaed however. 4 thegns who were, in the words of the Anglo Saxon Chronicles, “dear to Aethelflaed” were killed in the campaign but still, like her brother Edward The Elder, Aethelflaed continued on her relentless mission to not only halt the Viking incursions but drive them back and perhaps even expel them from England completely.

The next year, Aethelflaed showed a different side to her character. She had demonstrated brilliantly, that she could organise armies, build defences and protect her people. In 918, she showed she could expand her territories by guile as Aethelflaed “peaceably got control of Leicester”. The brilliance of Aethelflaed’s leadership had earned her enough renown that her enemies were now willing to surrender to her and her forces without too much extensive resistance.

Not long after, the men of York, in Danish hands, came to swear loyalty to Aetheflaed but, shortly after, Aethelflaed died. On her death, on the 12th June 918, Aethelflaed, Lady of the Mercians, was on the warpath. She, along with Edward The Elder, had achieved brilliant successes and Mercia would come under Edward’s control. Edward profited immeasurably from the efforts of his sister and, on hearing of her death, he rode to Tamworth where he must have been sorrowful at her passing and, also, grateful for what she had accomplished. Even in the age of the Viking wars, Aethelflaed had shown, particularly during her relatively brief time as sole ruler of Mercia, that female rule was not only possible but it could also be spectacularly successful.

The chronicler, William of Malmesbury, praises Aethelflaed extensively and paints a picture of a strong willed woman. William attributes Aethelflaed only having one child with Aethelred as the result of a particularly difficult labour and refused her husband’s sexual advances from that point on. To his credit, Aethelred seems to have respected Aethelflaed’s wishes. From there on, Aethelflaed instead dedicated her life to a very different cause, that of a warrior, one not expected of a woman. William praises Aethelflaed as a woman “with an enlarged soul…and a spirited heroine” who “aided her brother greatly with her advice and of building cities.” Fierce to the end, Aethelflaed, Lady of the Mercians, is a woman you cannot help but admire tremendously.

Alfred The Great: A National Hero

 Asser’s life of King Alfred was a biography of Alfred The Great written by a Welsh monk who knew the king personally. It’s a wonderful insight into one of history’s most important rulers and a key source for his reign. Another famous source for the events of Alfred’s reign is the Anglo Saxon Chronicles which was compiled on his orders and continued centuries after Alfred’s death in 899. There are other later sources as well. As you look through all these materials, one thing will jump out at you after a while. That is the impression of what a great man and king Alfred truly must have been. That may sound like a fairly obvious statement to make considering he is known to history as “Alfred The Great” but what has to be established is why was he so great? There are several reasons for Alfred’s “greatness” and those will become, hopefully, more apparent as we journey through Alfred’s approximately 50 year long life.

Born in Wantage, Berkshire in 849. His father was king Aethelwulf of Wessex. Aethelwulf surrounded himself with men who had good judgement and some courage and it was a good job he did too. His reign coincided with an increase in severity and frequency of Viking raids. During Alfred’s childhood, his father sent him on two occasions to Rome to visit the pope, once accompanied by a retinue of Anglo Saxon nobles and, on the second occasion, by Aethelwulf himself. Obviously, such trips would leave a lasting impression on Alfred and his piety.

Alfred’s mother was Osburh. Osburh took a keen interest in her children’s learning. Asser tells how, one day, Osburh told her children that whichever of them could memorise a book of poetry then that child could keep. Although still unable to read, young Alfred eagerly took the book from his mother’s hand and took it to his tutor who he asked to read the poems out loud to him whilst Alfred listened intently and focused with all his might to remember the words and, apparently, he was successful. Alfred was described as being “extraordinarily beloved by both his mother and his father” and it must have been a very sad blow for the young boy when both of them died before he had even turned 10. Nonetheless, both Aethelwulf and Osburh had reared a very intelligent son who would love learning for the rest of his life and, as king, Alfred would bemoan the lack of good tutors across Wessex. Alfred would do his best to remedy that and he tried to ensure that children, from all classes, had access to a good education, believing that an educated society could only be beneficial to his kingdom.

It was whilst returning from the second trip to Rome that Alfred got a new stepmother. Aethelwulf and his company stopped off at the court of Charles The Bald where the king of Wessex met Charles’ daughter, Judith.With Osburh dead, Aethelwulf took Judith back to Wessex to be his new queen. After Aethelwulf’s death in 858, Judith was scandalously married to Aethelbald, Alfred’s brother, who had rebelled against his father whilst Aethelwulf had been away on the continent. Aethelbald’s marriage to Judith and reign as sole ruler of Wessex, having forced his father to divide the kingdom, was short lived and was, according to Asser, two and a half years of “lawlessness”.

Another two of Alfred’s brothers succeeded as kings of Wessex following Aethelbald’s death. First was Aethelbert who the Anglo Saxon chronicles says ruled Wessex “in good concord” and who Asser says “ruled his kingdom in peace, love and honour”. Quite how true those statements are that Aethelbert ruled in peace and tranquility is up for debate. Both Asser and the ASC describes how the Vikings raided and sacked Winchester before an army of men from Berkshire hunted the raiders down and defeated them in battle which is an indication that the Viking threat was never too far away. However, it may be that a period of relative calm followed the sack of Winchester and Aethelbert was indeed allowed to rule in a climate of reasonable quiet.

After Aethelbert’s death in 865, Aethelred I came to the throne of Wessex. He was Alfred’s last surviving brother of whom he had 4, although a sister, Aethelswith, lived and had married King Burgred of Mercia. Aethelred tried to resist the Vikings as determinedly as he could, suffering both setbacks and some successes during his reign. Alfred, now becoming a young man, joined his brother on his campaigns and began to learn the arts of war and kingship in the 9th century. When Aethelred died in 871, Alfred was ready to become a king. Aethelred had two young sons who, in a later era, may well have succeeded their father as king. But, given they were little more than infants at the time of their father’s death, there was no question of having a child ruler in the age of the Viking wars. It was entirely impractical, especially when Alfred was now a full grown man and experienced in battle.

In the months leading up to Alfred becoming king, the men of Wessex suffered harrowing defeats at Reading, Basing and Meretun albeit with a success at the Battle of Ashdown thrown in. Alfred had been present at all these battles at which he would have learned some very harsh lessons indeed. Almost disregarding previous setbacks and afflicted by depleted numbers caused by several battles fought in a short space of time, the new king continued to carry the fight to the Vikings. At the battle of Wilton, still in 871, Alfred and his small number of men fought courageously against the invaders but were eventually overwhelmed.

A few years before becoming king, in 868, Alfred married a woman named Ealhswith, who was the daughter of a Mercian nobleman. Alfred would be married to Ealhswith for over 30 years, until his death in 899, and, when he became king in 871, Ealhswith had already given him a daughter, named Aethelflaed, who would lead quite an extraordinary life. More children would follow in the years to come, including Alfred’s successor, Edward The Elder. In 874, the Vikings drove out king Burgred of Mercia, husband of Alfred’s sister Aethelswith, who both fled to Rome. This must have enraged Alfred and also created a heightened sense of fear that his own kingdom was becoming increasingly vulnerable.

Still, he was not to be cowed. In 875, Alfred fought fire with fire. The Vikings were, of course, highly experienced seafarers but Alfred defeated them at their own game as the Anglo Saxon chronicles describes; “And that summer (of 875) king Alfred went out to sea with a raiding ship army and fought against 7 ship loads and captured one of them and put the others to flight.” Whilst this particular incident may not look overly important; after all most of the Viking ships escaped relatively unscathed. Alfred had, nonetheless, fired a shot across the bows and sent a clear message to the raiders that he was not afraid to attack them, even at sea where they would have felt themselves to have held supremacy over the Anglo Saxons. Whilst on the surface, it looks like a fairly minor incident, for the Vikings it would have been a bit of a jolt.

Over the next couple of years, Alfred forced treaties out of the raiders and took hostages but, predictably, the Vikings soon broke the promises they had made and Alfred was left to pursue them. But, by 878, Alfred was facing real difficulties as the raiders breached his kingdom and forced even the king himself to flee into the marshes and woodland of Somerset. It was during these dark days that the most famous incident of Alfred’s reign allegedly occurred. Seeking shelter from his enemies, Alfred was taken in by the wife of a Swineherd. The peasant woman asked Alfred to watch the cakes she was baking whilst she was preoccupied with other tasks. Obviously with a lot on his mind, the distracted Alfred let the cakes burn and had to face the wrath of an angry peasant.

Perhaps such an experience inspired Alfred to greater heights. He renewed his efforts against the Vikings with Asser saying “after Easter, King Alfred, with a few men, made a stronghold in a place called Athelney and from thence sallied with his vassals of Somerset to make frequent and unwearied assaults upon the heathen”. And, at the Battle of Edington, during that same year of 878, he won a famous victory over Guthrum, Danish king of East Anglia. 3 weeks after the battle, Guthrum and 30 of his most prominent men came to Alfred and were baptised. Not long after, Guthrum’s forces retreated to Cirencester and eventually back to East Anglia. Alfred and Wessex had been extremely hard pressed by the Vikings and were perhaps teetering on the brink of a disastrous defeat. But the courage and martial brilliance of Alfred and his men had prevailed at Edington and had driven the invaders back. The victory at Edington preserved the kingdom of Wessex for Alfred and his successors to build upon. It is surely one of the most important battles in all English history.

That is not to say, there was suddenly universal peace for Alfred and his subjects. In 882, Alfred again took to sea, capturing four Viking ships as well as killing a number of the ships’ occupants. The following year, Alfred received a piece of the “true cross” from Pope Marinus I in what was recognition for Alfred’s tireless efforts against the Vikings, a heathen army that were plaguing not only the Anglo Saxon kingdoms but other Christian parts of Europe too. I have made this point elsewhere that it’s not an exaggeration to say that Alfred The Great can be regarded as a Crusader king. Traditionally, the Crusading era is dated from the onset of the First Crusade in the 1090s but the nature of Alfred’s Viking Wars, his conversion of Guthrum, being rewarded with a piece of the “true cross” etc shows the distinctly Christian nature of Alfred’s struggles.

In 884, Alfred relieved a siege of Rochester in Kent before his men enjoyed both success and defeat in East Anglia. Such was the fortunes of war. In 886, Alfred made another valuable gain, taking London which he granted back to his son in law, Aethelred of Mercia, husband of Aethelflaed. By now, Alfred was in his late 30s. His adult life had been preoccupied with worries about the Vikings and protecting his lands and people. However, he also had another very different type of concern of a medical nature. According to Asser, Alfred, after extensive celebrations of his marriage in 868, began to suffer from pains that were, in Asser’s words, “instant and overwhelming and unknown to any physician.” The pain was excruciating for Alfred and he turned to prayer, hoping desperately that he would experience some relief. But, even during times when the pain was not as bad, Alfred could never fully relax for fear it would come back and afflict him worse than ever. Whilst people then speculated on what ailment was so troubling the king, it is generally agreed now that Alfred suffered from Chrohn’s disease.

Alfred’s spirit, however, was never broken by his troubles as Asser describes; (He continued) to carry on the government, and to practise hunting in all its branches; to teach his goldsmiths and all his artificers, his falconers, hawkers, and dog-keepers; (He continued) to build houses, majestic and rich beyond all custom of his predecessors, after his own new designs; to recite the Saxon books, and especially to learn by heart Saxon poems and to make others learn them.”

In 893, assisted by his maturing son Edward, Alfred defeated the Vikings at Farnham and recaptured treasures that had been stolen by the invaders. Alfred had split his army into two and entrusted one half to the leadership of Edward. Whilst Edward showed his youth during a slightly reckless charge in pursuit of the fleeing Danes whilst separated from his father’s forces, it was clear that Alfred’s heir had learned much under his father’s tutelage which would stand him in good stead for his own magnificent reign.

Despite all of Alfred’s brilliance, there were still disasters he could not prevent. In the late 890s, the Anglo Saxons were afflicted with regular pestilence, leading to widespread death among livestock and humans alike, including some of the king’s key supporters. In 896, mimicking the Viking example, Alfred ordered longships to be built which he put to good use and inflicted further significant damage on the enemy. Alfred The Great died in 899, a warrior king to the end. But it wasn’t just his exploits in war that Alfred was renowned for. In the words of Asser; “Alfred showed himself a minute investigator of the truth in all his judgments, and this especially for the sake of the poor, to whose interest, day and night, among other duties of this life, he was ever wonderfully attentive.” Alfred encouraged schooling for all classes and ordered translations of books so they could be read by a wider audience. And, of course, the ASC remains one of the most valuable sources for not only Alfred’s time but for the centuries both immediately before and after his reign.

But one cannot escape what Alfred’s reign was dominated by. The Viking wars and Alfred, in the grips of a brutal, decades long illness, relentlessly defied the odds and, as so frequently stated in the ASC, put the raiders to flight. Not too long ago, a piece was written claiming Alfred The Great was “not all that great”. This is utter nonsense. If anything, “great” doesn’t begin to scratch the surface when it comes to Alfred’s brilliance. He was a king like no other in English history and, in the decades to come, his son, daughter and grandson would make full use of Alfred’s hard work.

The Long Reign of Henry III

 In October 1216, King John died, a miserable, wretch of a man. To succeed him as king, he left a young son, Henry III, who ruled for 56 years, making him England’s longest reigning medieval monarch. But, for the 9 year old Henry, his secure succession to the throne was by no means guaranteed. Prince Louis, son of the French king Philip II,was still eager to take the crown that had been promised to him by the enemies of John who were desperate to see the back of the hapless king; so desperate indeed as to invite a French prince to cross the channel and usurp him. But with John now dead, for many there was no reason to continue to be hostile to the crown. The new king, Henry, was an innocent 9 year old boy and no grievances were held against him. Louis, however, would persist and Henry needed a wise and sensible guardian to not only ensure his coronation took place safely but also that Henry was protected from Louis’ machinations.

Fortunately, there was such a man. He was William Marshal, Earl of Pembroke. William had served the English crown for decades, steering it through rocky waters of civil war and rebellions. By the time of Henry III’s succession, William Marshal was approaching 70 and, understandably, thinking about a quiet retirement. However, such was the standing of the man that William’s fellow nobles begged him to become young Henry’s guardian. When this request was first put to William, he allegedly responded; “I cannot. I have no longer the strength needed for such a charge. I am too old. You must give this responsibility to another.” Although the matter was briefly allowed to rest, Marshal would again be pressed to become the young king’s protector.

Henry III was crowned hastily at Gloucester by a papal legate, named Gualo. It was hardly the most glamorous of occasions but Henry nonetheless looked the part in his royal robes, despite being of such tender years. The haste of the ceremony could hardly be avoided given the tense nature of the political situation in England at that time and Henry would be crowned again in 1220. Further discussions followed the ceremony regarding who would be Henry’s regent during his minority, a period that would take some years, perhaps 7 or 8. There were two prime candidates for this responsibility; a reluctant William Marshal and Ranulf, Earl of Chester. After extensive deliberation, during which William and Ranulf tried to persuade the other to become guardian, a deadlock was reached. It took the intervention of Gualo to break the stalemate. He took William to one side and granted the earl remission of his sins should he agree to become regent. Remission, or forgiveness, of sins was a concept designed to appeal to crusaders fighting Holy War in the name of medieval popes and, for William Marshal, such a promise was highly tempting. Gualo clearly knew Marshal well and his design worked with Marshal stating; “In God’s name, if at this price I am absolved of my sins, this office suits me and I will take it, though it weighs heavily upon me”. There was widespread rejoicing as the people knew their young, new king was in the safe hands of one of the greatest knights of the age.

Prince Louis had retreated to France but this was not a permanent retreat. He’d gone to bolster his forces for a renewed assault on the English crown and he returned, much to the irritation of William Marshal. Louis divided his forces into two. With one half of his army, Louis assaulted Dover castle whilst the other half of his army laid siege to Lincoln where they were repelled by the robustly courageous female sheriff, Nicola De La Haye. Nicola was then aided by the arrival of William Marshal who defeated the French. Through the summer of 1217, Louis’ campaign gradually lost momentum and terms were reached in September of that year with Louis agreeing to return to France. Two years later, William Marshal died. His last of many great acts in the service of the English crown was to preserve the kingdom of Henry III. He was an outstanding knight in every sense and his death at the age of 72 was, unsurprisingly, greatly mourned.

In 1220, Henry III, still a child, was crowned again, this time at Westminster, on the orders of Pope Honorius III. This ceremony was overseen by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Stephen Langton, who had been at the centre of a dispute between the papacy and Henry’s father, John. The second coronation went off successfully with one chronicler writing; “It was accomplished in such a great spirit of peace and munificence that the older members of the nobility asserted that none of Henry’s predecessors had been crowned in such harmony and tranquility.”

Although things were relatively stable for Henry in the 1220s, the king was showing signs that he was not overly savvy with finances. In 1228, a papal messenger arrived in England to collect the payments Henry had promised Gregory IX in his conflict with the Emperor Frederick II. This would not be the last time Henry burdened himself financially with the papacy and in 1230 he led a rather nondescript invasion of France which achieved nothing except waste money and resources. In the early 1230s Henry was being harassed by the Welsh but he was already counting the cost of his mistakes. When he was told of the damage being inflicted by the Welsh, Henry is alleged to have responded;” I have been informed by my treasurers that all the revenues of my exchequer are scarcely enough to provide me with the simplest food and clothes. So my poverty does not allow me to make expeditions for war.”

Of course, Henry had largely brought this on himself but it was, he found, much easier to blame someone else and the fall guy for the king was his chief justiciar, Hubert De Burgh and, in his place, the Bishop of Winchester, Peter Des Roches, backed by his Poitevin supporters, became more influential. It was said that Des Roches’ power grew so that “Nothing in England happened unless Peter and his Poitevins arranged it”. Naturally, this created tension amongst Henry’s nobles and with the king himself. Des Roches’ began plotting the death of his foe Hubert De Burgh but eventually the king made peace with De Burgh in 1234.

The following year, Henry received a letter from the Emperor Frederick II who wanted to marry the king’s sister, Isabella. Naturally, Henry was intrigued by this proposal. Isabella ,aged 20, was taken to meet the imperial ambassadors who were impressed with her regal appearance. After the terms of the marriage had been agreed upon, no expense was spared by Henry as he prepared to send his sister off to the continent and live the life of an empress. Frederick was very satisfied with his new wife, his third, and sent to Henry, in gratitude, 3 leopards or possibly lions. Henry would keep them at the royal menagerie at the Tower of London which would later include an elephant, sent to him by Louis IX of France in 1254, and a polar bear, sent to him by King Haakon IV of Norway two years earlier. The polar bear would be allowed to swim in the river Thames and, unsurprisingly, this menagerie would attract many visitors.

On 14th January 1236, Henry married Eleanor of Provence and, less than a week later, Eleanor was crowned queen. Eleanor would prove to be highly unpopular, particularly with the people of London. Eleanor’s family profited greatly from her royal marriage which earned her and them much animosity, so much so that, whilst sailing down the river Thames one day, Eleanor was bombarded with various objects including vegetables, rocks and anything the Londoners could find to show their contempt for her. Eleanor’s unpopularity was, essentially, Henry’s doing.

Henry was a very pious man with a particular admiration for the Anglo Saxon king, Edward The Confessor, Henry’s French counterpart, and rival, Louis IX was of a similar nature. In 1241, Louis brought a portion of the “True Cross” to France at huge expense as well as other relics and he built grand new churches. Henry, not to be outdone, would rebuild Westminster Abbey, the great work of Edward The Confessor, as well as building a spectacular new shrine to house Edward’s remains. Louis, of course, would also vow to go on Crusade which Henry also swore to do. Unfortunately, he was unable to live up to those lofty promises. Perhaps irked by the thought of Louis “outdoing him” in the piety stakes, Henry led another military campaign into France and ,again, he failed dismally.

Whilst Louis was proving himself to be a true Christian king, fighting the Holy war on Crusade, Henry’s reputation was diminishing all the time. By the 1250s, discontent among Henry’s nobles was simmering under the surface. Matthew Paris, hostile to Henry, wrote;

” Henry III was losing the affection of his native born subjects. Like his father John before him, Henry attracted and enriched all the foreigners that he could. Englishmen were spurned and deprived as outsiders were brought in. The queen’s uncle, Boniface of Savoy (was made) archbishop of Canterbury and his brother Peter, count of Savoy, Aymer De Valence, the king’s half brother, bishop elect of Winchester, among others, were invited in from all quarters”.

In 1255, Eleanor of Castile ,the wife of Henry’s son, Edward, who would succeed him as king in 1272, arrived in England. Such was the grandness of her approach, it was said the English feared that they were being invaded. In his manner, Henry put on great celebrations for the arrival of Eleanor and this again drew sneers that Henry was, once more prioritising those from a foreign kingdom, as Eleanor was, over those of English birth. On this occasion, this accusation seems a little harsh but the ostentation did not go down well. Henry was, to put it mildly, making a pig’s ear of the country’s finances. He had made promises to the papacy that he would go on crusade. Given what we know of Henry’s nature, these promises would have been made in good faith but, although he made preparations, he never actually went on Crusade, leaving himself heavily in debt from the loans he had borrowed. Henry also further incurred the wrath of the papacy by agreeing to the far-fetched scheme of putting his son, Edmund Crouchback, on the throne of Sicily. This caused Henry further financial difficulties as infuriated his nobles and population with increased taxes.

In 1258, Henry III faced his own version of Magna Carta when the Provisions of Oxford was drawn up. By 1263, the barons, led by Henry’s one time friend Simon De Montfort, Earl of Leicester, were prepared to keep the king’s power in check by force. For the time being, they maintained loyalty to the king, bearing his banner but seizing his castles at the same time, with the purpose of ridding the lands of those they viewed as having enriched themselves unjustly. Henry took the opportunity to escape some of the political heat by crossing the channel to France to meet with Louis. On his return, he would face De Montfort’s men at the Battle of Lewes which would end in a humiliating defeat for the king.

The barons offered to make peace but Henry, with his superior numbers, arrogantly dismissed this offer out of hand. He came to regret this as the battle turned against him. His son, Prince Edward, had developed a hatred for the Londoners after their treatment of his mother, Eleanor, and when he saw their portion of the army, he went in hot pursuit, leaving Henry isolated and soon to be defeated. Henry was now Simon’s prisoner. For a king who had a rather inflated sense of self worth, this was an embarrassing moment for Henry ,and for a year, Simon would wield power. It wouldn’t be Henry who restored royal dignity, however, but Prince Edward.

Edward had also been taken prisoner but he made a daring escape, having skilfully outwitted his guards and, at the Battle of Evesham, he routed Simon De Montfort who was hacked to bits during the battle. Henry III, chastened only a little, was restored to power. In Parliament, a few months later, Henry seized lands and property of the men who had stood against him. Eventually, after continuing tensions, Henry and his nobles largely agreed to peace. In 1270, Prince Edward announced, at Winchester castle, that he was to go on Crusade. It was at Winchester Castle that his father, Henry III, had been born in 1207 so it was a very symbolic moment for father and son. Crusading was something Henry had given much thought to throughout his life but it would be his son, not he, who would actually be a crusader. The 9th Crusade is sometimes known as Lord Edward’s Crusade, for obvious reasons, and only had limited impact. But Prince Edward, who would become king Edward I during his long journey home, showed that he was a vastly different man to his father. Henry III had picked fights he couldn’t win, made promises he couldn’t keep and ruled a country for more than half a century he couldn’t keep happy. The reign of Henry III was long and, frankly, tortuous.